Author: S.W. Omta
Publisher: Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN: 9401101019
Category : Science
Languages : en
Pages : 294
Book Description
Is talent the only key to scientific success? In fact, the answer is: `No'. Management and organisation do make a real, significant difference between success and failure in science. This book presents a clear survey of the critical success factors in biomedical research laboratories. Based on an international, comparative study of 71 research laboratories in medical faculties, large health research institutes and innovative pharmaceutical companies, ready-to-use guidelines are offered to those who are responsible for the management of research groups. Dr. Omta is biochemist and has played a key role in the development of the EU Biotechnology Network. He has performed the comparative study for this book in the position of Managing Director of the Institute for Research in Extramural Medicine in Amsterdam. The author has recently been appointed as Associate Professor at the Faculty of Management and Organisation at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. This work is a unique guide for heads, professors, or managers of (biomedical) research laboratories in universities, research institutes and innovative pharmaceutical companies, who are seeking rational tools for increasing the performance and effectiveness of their research groups.
Critical Success Factors in Biomedical Research and Pharmaceutical Innovation
Author: S.W. Omta
Publisher: Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN: 9401101019
Category : Science
Languages : en
Pages : 294
Book Description
Is talent the only key to scientific success? In fact, the answer is: `No'. Management and organisation do make a real, significant difference between success and failure in science. This book presents a clear survey of the critical success factors in biomedical research laboratories. Based on an international, comparative study of 71 research laboratories in medical faculties, large health research institutes and innovative pharmaceutical companies, ready-to-use guidelines are offered to those who are responsible for the management of research groups. Dr. Omta is biochemist and has played a key role in the development of the EU Biotechnology Network. He has performed the comparative study for this book in the position of Managing Director of the Institute for Research in Extramural Medicine in Amsterdam. The author has recently been appointed as Associate Professor at the Faculty of Management and Organisation at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. This work is a unique guide for heads, professors, or managers of (biomedical) research laboratories in universities, research institutes and innovative pharmaceutical companies, who are seeking rational tools for increasing the performance and effectiveness of their research groups.
Publisher: Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN: 9401101019
Category : Science
Languages : en
Pages : 294
Book Description
Is talent the only key to scientific success? In fact, the answer is: `No'. Management and organisation do make a real, significant difference between success and failure in science. This book presents a clear survey of the critical success factors in biomedical research laboratories. Based on an international, comparative study of 71 research laboratories in medical faculties, large health research institutes and innovative pharmaceutical companies, ready-to-use guidelines are offered to those who are responsible for the management of research groups. Dr. Omta is biochemist and has played a key role in the development of the EU Biotechnology Network. He has performed the comparative study for this book in the position of Managing Director of the Institute for Research in Extramural Medicine in Amsterdam. The author has recently been appointed as Associate Professor at the Faculty of Management and Organisation at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. This work is a unique guide for heads, professors, or managers of (biomedical) research laboratories in universities, research institutes and innovative pharmaceutical companies, who are seeking rational tools for increasing the performance and effectiveness of their research groups.
Value Creation in the Pharmaceutical Industry
Author: Alexander Schuhmacher
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 3527339132
Category : Science
Languages : en
Pages : 511
Book Description
This practical guide for advanced students and decision-makers in the pharma and biotech industry presents key success factors in R&D along with value creators in pharmaceutical innovation. A team of editors and authors with extensive experience in academia and industry and at some of the most prestigious business schools in Europe discusses in detail the innovation process in pharma as well as common and new research and innovation strategies. In doing so, they cover collaboration and partnerships, open innovation, biopharmaceuticals, translational medicine, good manufacturing practice, regulatory affairs, and portfolio management. Each chapter covers controversial aspects of recent developments in the pharmaceutical industry, with the aim of stimulating productive debates on the most effective and efficient innovation processes. A must-have for young professionals and MBA students preparing to enter R&D in pharma or biotech as well as for students on a combined BA/biomedical and natural sciences program.
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 3527339132
Category : Science
Languages : en
Pages : 511
Book Description
This practical guide for advanced students and decision-makers in the pharma and biotech industry presents key success factors in R&D along with value creators in pharmaceutical innovation. A team of editors and authors with extensive experience in academia and industry and at some of the most prestigious business schools in Europe discusses in detail the innovation process in pharma as well as common and new research and innovation strategies. In doing so, they cover collaboration and partnerships, open innovation, biopharmaceuticals, translational medicine, good manufacturing practice, regulatory affairs, and portfolio management. Each chapter covers controversial aspects of recent developments in the pharmaceutical industry, with the aim of stimulating productive debates on the most effective and efficient innovation processes. A must-have for young professionals and MBA students preparing to enter R&D in pharma or biotech as well as for students on a combined BA/biomedical and natural sciences program.
Progress in drug research. 50.1998
Author: Ernst Jucker
Publisher: Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN: 9783764358211
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 384
Book Description
Progress in Drug Research is a prestigious book series (founded in 1959) which provides extensive expert-written reviews on a wide spectrum of highly topical areas in current pharmaceutical and pharmalogical research. Each volume contains fully cross-referencing indexes which link the volumes together, forming a virtually encyclopaedic work. The series thus serves as an important, time-saving source of information for researchers concerned with drug research and all those who need to keep abreast of the many recent developments in the quest for new and better medicines. Volume 50 in the series includes: P.N. Kaul: Drug discovery: Past, present and future M. Rohmer: Isoprenoid biosynthesis via the mevalonate -- independent route, a novel target for antibacterial drugs G. Edwards and A.H. Weston: Endothelium, -derived hyperpolarizing factor -- a critical appraisal R.W. Rockhold: Glutamatic involvement in psychomotor stimulant action J.M. Colacino and K.A. Staschke: The identification and development of antiviral agents for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B virus infection T.D. Johnson: Polyamines and cerebral ischemia
Publisher: Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN: 9783764358211
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 384
Book Description
Progress in Drug Research is a prestigious book series (founded in 1959) which provides extensive expert-written reviews on a wide spectrum of highly topical areas in current pharmaceutical and pharmalogical research. Each volume contains fully cross-referencing indexes which link the volumes together, forming a virtually encyclopaedic work. The series thus serves as an important, time-saving source of information for researchers concerned with drug research and all those who need to keep abreast of the many recent developments in the quest for new and better medicines. Volume 50 in the series includes: P.N. Kaul: Drug discovery: Past, present and future M. Rohmer: Isoprenoid biosynthesis via the mevalonate -- independent route, a novel target for antibacterial drugs G. Edwards and A.H. Weston: Endothelium, -derived hyperpolarizing factor -- a critical appraisal R.W. Rockhold: Glutamatic involvement in psychomotor stimulant action J.M. Colacino and K.A. Staschke: The identification and development of antiviral agents for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B virus infection T.D. Johnson: Polyamines and cerebral ischemia
Creativity and Leadership in Science, Technology, and Innovation
Author: Sven Hemlin
Publisher: Routledge
ISBN: 1135048827
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 383
Book Description
Leadership is vital to creativity and successful innovation in groups and organizations; leadership is however seldom studied in the academic literature as a creativity driver. One reason for the lack of attention paid to leadership’s effect on creativity may be the common belief that creativity cannot and should not be managed. Creative individuals and groups are regarded as, and indeed often are, autonomous and self-driving. From this belief the erroneous conclusion is drawn that there is no need for leadership in creative environments and situations. The better conclusion, proposed by this book, is that leadership not only stimulates creativity, but that such a leadership in the science, technology, and innovation fields should specifically possess at least two features: a) expertise in the field(s), and b) an ability to create, support, and encourage individuals, groups, and creative knowledge environments. A number of specialist authors in this volume offer original theoretical, empirical, and applied chapters that elucidate how to better organize and lead creative efforts in science, technology, and innovation. A number of important research questions are raised and answered, including: What kinds of leaderships are needed at different levels of S&T organizations for a creative output? What social and cognitive abilities and skills are needed for leadership in creative environments? How does leadership vary with different phases of the creative process? This book offers concrete analysis of how leaders and managers can facilitate, promote, and organize for creative performance in science, technology, and in innovating organizations, making it required reading for academic and industrial research leaders, scientists, and engineers.
Publisher: Routledge
ISBN: 1135048827
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 383
Book Description
Leadership is vital to creativity and successful innovation in groups and organizations; leadership is however seldom studied in the academic literature as a creativity driver. One reason for the lack of attention paid to leadership’s effect on creativity may be the common belief that creativity cannot and should not be managed. Creative individuals and groups are regarded as, and indeed often are, autonomous and self-driving. From this belief the erroneous conclusion is drawn that there is no need for leadership in creative environments and situations. The better conclusion, proposed by this book, is that leadership not only stimulates creativity, but that such a leadership in the science, technology, and innovation fields should specifically possess at least two features: a) expertise in the field(s), and b) an ability to create, support, and encourage individuals, groups, and creative knowledge environments. A number of specialist authors in this volume offer original theoretical, empirical, and applied chapters that elucidate how to better organize and lead creative efforts in science, technology, and innovation. A number of important research questions are raised and answered, including: What kinds of leaderships are needed at different levels of S&T organizations for a creative output? What social and cognitive abilities and skills are needed for leadership in creative environments? How does leadership vary with different phases of the creative process? This book offers concrete analysis of how leaders and managers can facilitate, promote, and organize for creative performance in science, technology, and in innovating organizations, making it required reading for academic and industrial research leaders, scientists, and engineers.
Building Innovation Capability in Organizations
Author: Mile Terziovski
Publisher: Imperial College Press
ISBN: 1860949991
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 275
Book Description
Global competition, shorter product lifecycles and increasingly demanding customers are creating significant pressures for the creation of innovative organizations. By examining eight case studies in various industry sectors in Europe, Australia, Japan and Thailand, this book provides a qualitative explanation of the complex relationships between innovation capability, e-commerce, sustainable development and new product development. The book explores how organizations develop innovation capability through the application of e-commerce, sustainable development-orientation, and new product development in order to gain competitive advantage. This knowledge will help managers, academics and policy-makers understand OC what works, and why and how it worksOCO in creating innovation-driven organizations from an international perspective, thereby providing an integrated approach to innovation management. Sample Chapter(s). Chapter 1: Introduction (84 KB). Contents: Development of an Integrated Innovation Capability Model; Strategic Shift from Product Orientation to Innovation Solutions Capability in the German Biotechnology Industry: Sartorius AG; Managing Strategic Change Through Mainstream and Newstream Innovation at Eurocopter, France; Leveraging Innovation Capabilities at Caterpillar Underground Mining (UGM) Pty Ltd; Drivers of Innovation Capability at Sun Microsystems (SMS); Development and Exploitation of Innovation Capability at a Defence Project Engineering Company (DPEC); Drivers of Innovation Capability for Effective Sustainable Development: Best Practice at Vaisala; Developing Innovation Capability Through Intellectual Property Strategy in the Australian Biotechnology Industry: Starpharma; Development of Innovation Capability at Invincible Company in Thailand; Multiple Cross-Case Analysis: Conclusions and Implications. Readership: Managers, academic lecturers, and management researchers; as a supplementary textbook for undergraduates and postgraduates in innovation and technology management."
Publisher: Imperial College Press
ISBN: 1860949991
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 275
Book Description
Global competition, shorter product lifecycles and increasingly demanding customers are creating significant pressures for the creation of innovative organizations. By examining eight case studies in various industry sectors in Europe, Australia, Japan and Thailand, this book provides a qualitative explanation of the complex relationships between innovation capability, e-commerce, sustainable development and new product development. The book explores how organizations develop innovation capability through the application of e-commerce, sustainable development-orientation, and new product development in order to gain competitive advantage. This knowledge will help managers, academics and policy-makers understand OC what works, and why and how it worksOCO in creating innovation-driven organizations from an international perspective, thereby providing an integrated approach to innovation management. Sample Chapter(s). Chapter 1: Introduction (84 KB). Contents: Development of an Integrated Innovation Capability Model; Strategic Shift from Product Orientation to Innovation Solutions Capability in the German Biotechnology Industry: Sartorius AG; Managing Strategic Change Through Mainstream and Newstream Innovation at Eurocopter, France; Leveraging Innovation Capabilities at Caterpillar Underground Mining (UGM) Pty Ltd; Drivers of Innovation Capability at Sun Microsystems (SMS); Development and Exploitation of Innovation Capability at a Defence Project Engineering Company (DPEC); Drivers of Innovation Capability for Effective Sustainable Development: Best Practice at Vaisala; Developing Innovation Capability Through Intellectual Property Strategy in the Australian Biotechnology Industry: Starpharma; Development of Innovation Capability at Invincible Company in Thailand; Multiple Cross-Case Analysis: Conclusions and Implications. Readership: Managers, academic lecturers, and management researchers; as a supplementary textbook for undergraduates and postgraduates in innovation and technology management."
The Changing Economics of Medical Technology
Author: Institute of Medicine
Publisher: National Academies Press
ISBN: 030904491X
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 225
Book Description
Americans praise medical technology for saving lives and improving health. Yet, new technology is often cited as a key factor in skyrocketing medical costs. This volume, second in the Medical Innovation at the Crossroads series, examines how economic incentives for innovation are changing and what that means for the future of health care. Up-to-date with a wide variety of examples and case studies, this book explores how payment, patent, and regulatory policiesâ€"as well as the involvement of numerous government agenciesâ€"affect the introduction and use of new pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and surgical procedures. The volume also includes detailed comparisons of policies and patterns of technological innovation in Western Europe and Japan. This fact-filled and practical book will be of interest to economists, policymakers, health administrators, health care practitioners, and the concerned public.
Publisher: National Academies Press
ISBN: 030904491X
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 225
Book Description
Americans praise medical technology for saving lives and improving health. Yet, new technology is often cited as a key factor in skyrocketing medical costs. This volume, second in the Medical Innovation at the Crossroads series, examines how economic incentives for innovation are changing and what that means for the future of health care. Up-to-date with a wide variety of examples and case studies, this book explores how payment, patent, and regulatory policiesâ€"as well as the involvement of numerous government agenciesâ€"affect the introduction and use of new pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and surgical procedures. The volume also includes detailed comparisons of policies and patterns of technological innovation in Western Europe and Japan. This fact-filled and practical book will be of interest to economists, policymakers, health administrators, health care practitioners, and the concerned public.
Integration and self regulation of quality management in Dutch agri-food supply chains
Author: Wijnand van Plaggenhoef
Publisher: BRILL
ISBN: 9086866271
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 295
Book Description
"During the last decade, sector wide crises in agriculture have rapidly followed each other, resulting in serious consumer concerns about the quality and safety of agri-food products. To prevent new crises, governments have developed quality regulations and retailers have introduced quality management standards. However, concerns have been raised about the administrative burdens placed on firms, because they must comply with many private and public quality regulations. Therefore, both government and firms strive for more integration and self regulation of quality management systems. By combining managerial and economic theory, this study builds a framework to demonstrate the impact of integrated quality management on self regulation and performance. Using empirical evidence from the poultry meat, the fruit and vegetable and the flower and potted plant chains, this study shows that integrated quality management systems positively affect performance and self regulation. However, it is necessary to find committed partners that share the firm’s quality objectives. In most cases, too strict enforcement of quality requirements is destructive, initiates conflict and does not lead to higher performance. Furthermore, governmental agencies should focus on innovative approaches to assure quality. Not legislation, but factors such as media attention and corporate social responsibility enlarge the integration of quality management systems. This book is recommended for a broad audience of professionals, practitioners and policy makers who concern themselves with the design, management and assessment of quality management and self regulation in agri-food supply chains."
Publisher: BRILL
ISBN: 9086866271
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 295
Book Description
"During the last decade, sector wide crises in agriculture have rapidly followed each other, resulting in serious consumer concerns about the quality and safety of agri-food products. To prevent new crises, governments have developed quality regulations and retailers have introduced quality management standards. However, concerns have been raised about the administrative burdens placed on firms, because they must comply with many private and public quality regulations. Therefore, both government and firms strive for more integration and self regulation of quality management systems. By combining managerial and economic theory, this study builds a framework to demonstrate the impact of integrated quality management on self regulation and performance. Using empirical evidence from the poultry meat, the fruit and vegetable and the flower and potted plant chains, this study shows that integrated quality management systems positively affect performance and self regulation. However, it is necessary to find committed partners that share the firm’s quality objectives. In most cases, too strict enforcement of quality requirements is destructive, initiates conflict and does not lead to higher performance. Furthermore, governmental agencies should focus on innovative approaches to assure quality. Not legislation, but factors such as media attention and corporate social responsibility enlarge the integration of quality management systems. This book is recommended for a broad audience of professionals, practitioners and policy makers who concern themselves with the design, management and assessment of quality management and self regulation in agri-food supply chains."
Open Innovation in the Food and Beverage Industry
Author: Marian Garcia Martinez
Publisher: Elsevier
ISBN: 0857097245
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 438
Book Description
Food and beverage companies are increasingly choosing to enhance internal idea development by pursuing an 'open innovation' approach, allowing the additional exploitation of external ideas and paths to market. Drawing on a range of important case studies, Open innovation in the food and beverage industry investigates the challenges and opportunities afforded by the incorporation of open innovation into the food industry.Part one provides a comprehensive overview of the changing nature of innovation in the food and drink industry, acknowledging trends and considering the implications and impact of open innovation. Part two then reviews the role of partners and networks in open innovation, with collaboration, co-creation of value with consumers, the effectiveness of cluster organizations and the importance of network knowledge all discussed, before part three goes on to explore the establishment and varied management aspects of open innovation partnerships and networks. Finally, open-innovation tools, processes and managerial frameworks are the focus of part four, with discussion of the development, application and psychology of a range of initiatives.With its distinguished editor and international team of expert contributors, Open innovation in the food and beverage industry is a unique guide to the implementation and management of open innovation for all food industry professionals involved in management, research and product development, as well as academics with an interest in open innovation across all industries. - Investigates the challenges and opportunities afforded by the incorporation of open innovation into the food industry - Provides a comprehensive overview of the changing nature of innovation in the food and drink industry and reviews the role of partners and networks in open innovation - Explores the establishment and varied management aspects of open innovation partnerships and networks and discusses the development, application and psychology of a range of initiatives
Publisher: Elsevier
ISBN: 0857097245
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 438
Book Description
Food and beverage companies are increasingly choosing to enhance internal idea development by pursuing an 'open innovation' approach, allowing the additional exploitation of external ideas and paths to market. Drawing on a range of important case studies, Open innovation in the food and beverage industry investigates the challenges and opportunities afforded by the incorporation of open innovation into the food industry.Part one provides a comprehensive overview of the changing nature of innovation in the food and drink industry, acknowledging trends and considering the implications and impact of open innovation. Part two then reviews the role of partners and networks in open innovation, with collaboration, co-creation of value with consumers, the effectiveness of cluster organizations and the importance of network knowledge all discussed, before part three goes on to explore the establishment and varied management aspects of open innovation partnerships and networks. Finally, open-innovation tools, processes and managerial frameworks are the focus of part four, with discussion of the development, application and psychology of a range of initiatives.With its distinguished editor and international team of expert contributors, Open innovation in the food and beverage industry is a unique guide to the implementation and management of open innovation for all food industry professionals involved in management, research and product development, as well as academics with an interest in open innovation across all industries. - Investigates the challenges and opportunities afforded by the incorporation of open innovation into the food industry - Provides a comprehensive overview of the changing nature of innovation in the food and drink industry and reviews the role of partners and networks in open innovation - Explores the establishment and varied management aspects of open innovation partnerships and networks and discusses the development, application and psychology of a range of initiatives
Headquarters-subsidiary relationship governance in emerging markets of Central Eastern Europe
Author: J.S. Hendriks-Gusc
Publisher: BRILL
ISBN: 9086866190
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 205
Book Description
"Multinational enterprises often seem to be on a 'roller coaster' when managing their operations in transition economies, especially because of the volatile business and political environment. By combining agency and stewardship theory, this book describes the subtle equilibrium between formal control and day-to-day coordination in the Headquarters-Subsidiary (HQ-S) governance relationship. Using the Polish situation as an example, it places HQ-S governance in the context of a transitional economy while taking the cultural differences between the headquarters and subsidiary country into account. This explorative empirical study shows that the use of strategic and operational control mechanisms work as a transparent ‘platform’ on which coordination and attuning mechanisms can be build to deal with the day-to-day management challenges in a transition economy. Creating flexibility and learning capabilities at the subsidiary level, rather than maintaining a subsidiary in a state of dependence can clearly contribute to the success of international operations. However, it also reveals that there is no simple and uniform recipe for managing subsidiaries. The road from governance to performance is not a one-way street and alternative routes are available to accelerate performance. This book is a valuable resource to all directors and managers of multinational enterprises, as well as academic researchers who concern themselves with the study of multinational enterprises in transition economies."
Publisher: BRILL
ISBN: 9086866190
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 205
Book Description
"Multinational enterprises often seem to be on a 'roller coaster' when managing their operations in transition economies, especially because of the volatile business and political environment. By combining agency and stewardship theory, this book describes the subtle equilibrium between formal control and day-to-day coordination in the Headquarters-Subsidiary (HQ-S) governance relationship. Using the Polish situation as an example, it places HQ-S governance in the context of a transitional economy while taking the cultural differences between the headquarters and subsidiary country into account. This explorative empirical study shows that the use of strategic and operational control mechanisms work as a transparent ‘platform’ on which coordination and attuning mechanisms can be build to deal with the day-to-day management challenges in a transition economy. Creating flexibility and learning capabilities at the subsidiary level, rather than maintaining a subsidiary in a state of dependence can clearly contribute to the success of international operations. However, it also reveals that there is no simple and uniform recipe for managing subsidiaries. The road from governance to performance is not a one-way street and alternative routes are available to accelerate performance. This book is a valuable resource to all directors and managers of multinational enterprises, as well as academic researchers who concern themselves with the study of multinational enterprises in transition economies."
Corporate Social Capital and Liability
Author: Roger Th.A.J. Leenders
Publisher: Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN: 1461550270
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 559
Book Description
In studies of inter-organizational relations (lOR's), there is a tendency to look at dyads of flrms, and to consider networks as aggregates of such dyads. But there are several roles for a third party; a go-between. This chapter looks at a go-between not in the sense of a middleman who intermediates in existing production or trade, such as an agent, wholesaler, retailer, and not in the sense of an entrepreneur who intermediates in the realization of new potential in connecting supply and demand. It looks at a go between in the sense of a relationship counsellor for the development and maintenance of social capital; providing support in setting up, adapting and ending cooperative relations between others. Or, in yet different terms: to help in the embedding of relati ons, in Granovetter's (1985) sense (Uzzi 1997a). Such roles may be performed by middlemen or entrepreneurs, but also by specialized agents who do not playa direct role in linking stages in a chain of production and distribution, as middlemen and entrepreneurs typically do. Indeed, some of the roles require an independence that is served by not having a direct stake in the relations that need to be developed. I propose that the analysis yields a perspective for looking at the roles of trade and industry associations in European business systems, and of banks and trading houses in Japanese enterprise groups (Kigyo Shudan).
Publisher: Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN: 1461550270
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 559
Book Description
In studies of inter-organizational relations (lOR's), there is a tendency to look at dyads of flrms, and to consider networks as aggregates of such dyads. But there are several roles for a third party; a go-between. This chapter looks at a go-between not in the sense of a middleman who intermediates in existing production or trade, such as an agent, wholesaler, retailer, and not in the sense of an entrepreneur who intermediates in the realization of new potential in connecting supply and demand. It looks at a go between in the sense of a relationship counsellor for the development and maintenance of social capital; providing support in setting up, adapting and ending cooperative relations between others. Or, in yet different terms: to help in the embedding of relati ons, in Granovetter's (1985) sense (Uzzi 1997a). Such roles may be performed by middlemen or entrepreneurs, but also by specialized agents who do not playa direct role in linking stages in a chain of production and distribution, as middlemen and entrepreneurs typically do. Indeed, some of the roles require an independence that is served by not having a direct stake in the relations that need to be developed. I propose that the analysis yields a perspective for looking at the roles of trade and industry associations in European business systems, and of banks and trading houses in Japanese enterprise groups (Kigyo Shudan).