Modeling of Solid Particle Transport in Fractures and Its Applications to Proppant Placement During Hydraulic Fracturing Operations PDF Download
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Author: Yanan Ding
Publisher:
ISBN:
Category :
Languages : en
Pages : 0
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Book Description
In addition to conventional enhanced oil recovery (EOR) technologies, extensive efforts have been made to explore new approaches to sustain the increasing global oil and gas consumption while lowering the operational costs. In recent decades, nanoparticles (NPs) have seen their promising potentials in recovering hydrocarbons from numerous laboratory experiments and field pilots. Also, hydraulic fracturing techniques have unlocked a significant quantity of hydrocarbon resources from unconventional reservoirs. Solid particle transport including NP transport, dispersion, and distribution in hydrocarbon reservoirs, proppant placement within hydraulic fractures, and sand production is critical to the efficient and effective hydrocarbon exploitation. Considering the petrophysical complexity as well as the intricate interactions among particles, fluids, and rock matrix, it is, therefore, an extremely challenging task to accurately predict the associated transport and placement behaviour of solid particles in a hydrocarbon reservoir. Theoretically, a robust and pragmatic method has been developed and validated to analytically determine the dynamic dispersion coefficients for particles flowing in a parallel-plate fracture with instantaneous point source as well as uniform and volumetric line sourcess, in which particle gravity settling effect has been considered. It is found that the point source and the uniform line source are respectively the most and least sensitive to the gravity effect. An increase of particle size larger than its critical value decreases the asymptotical dispersion coefficient for all the source conditions, while gravity settling promotes the dispersion phenomenon during the early-stage of point source condition. Particle-tracking simulations have been performed and validated on polydisperse dense particle transport in a randomly-orientated fracture with spatially variable apertures. The simulated results indicate that the mass breakthrough efficiency of particles and particle plume distribution in a randomly-orientated rough fracture are significantly influenced by different factors when particle gravity settling occurs. In addition, particle attachment consisting of reversible and irreversible adsorptions on an aperture surface is quantified applying the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) kinetics. With sensitivity analysis performed, the impacts of different factors on particle attachment are found to vary with each other through non-unique patterns. By integrating the Perkins-Kern-Nordgren-Carter (PKN-C) fracture propagation model and the particle tracking algorithm, a novel Eulerian-Lagrangian (E-L) model has been developed and validated to simulate field-scale proppant transport during hydraulic fracturing operations. Such an E-L model incorporates pertinent empirical correlations determined from regressing experimental measurements regarding the proppant settling velocity and the drag/lift forces, which is applicable to both the Newtonian and non- Newtonian fluid conditions. The non-Newtonian fluid is usually found to yield a less "heel-biased" pattern of proppant distribution in a hydraulic fracture, e.g., a larger slurry coverage together with a longer proppant dune, while distinct patterns of the dominant factors are observed and evaluated.
Author: Yanan Ding
Publisher:
ISBN:
Category :
Languages : en
Pages : 0
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Book Description
In addition to conventional enhanced oil recovery (EOR) technologies, extensive efforts have been made to explore new approaches to sustain the increasing global oil and gas consumption while lowering the operational costs. In recent decades, nanoparticles (NPs) have seen their promising potentials in recovering hydrocarbons from numerous laboratory experiments and field pilots. Also, hydraulic fracturing techniques have unlocked a significant quantity of hydrocarbon resources from unconventional reservoirs. Solid particle transport including NP transport, dispersion, and distribution in hydrocarbon reservoirs, proppant placement within hydraulic fractures, and sand production is critical to the efficient and effective hydrocarbon exploitation. Considering the petrophysical complexity as well as the intricate interactions among particles, fluids, and rock matrix, it is, therefore, an extremely challenging task to accurately predict the associated transport and placement behaviour of solid particles in a hydrocarbon reservoir. Theoretically, a robust and pragmatic method has been developed and validated to analytically determine the dynamic dispersion coefficients for particles flowing in a parallel-plate fracture with instantaneous point source as well as uniform and volumetric line sourcess, in which particle gravity settling effect has been considered. It is found that the point source and the uniform line source are respectively the most and least sensitive to the gravity effect. An increase of particle size larger than its critical value decreases the asymptotical dispersion coefficient for all the source conditions, while gravity settling promotes the dispersion phenomenon during the early-stage of point source condition. Particle-tracking simulations have been performed and validated on polydisperse dense particle transport in a randomly-orientated fracture with spatially variable apertures. The simulated results indicate that the mass breakthrough efficiency of particles and particle plume distribution in a randomly-orientated rough fracture are significantly influenced by different factors when particle gravity settling occurs. In addition, particle attachment consisting of reversible and irreversible adsorptions on an aperture surface is quantified applying the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) kinetics. With sensitivity analysis performed, the impacts of different factors on particle attachment are found to vary with each other through non-unique patterns. By integrating the Perkins-Kern-Nordgren-Carter (PKN-C) fracture propagation model and the particle tracking algorithm, a novel Eulerian-Lagrangian (E-L) model has been developed and validated to simulate field-scale proppant transport during hydraulic fracturing operations. Such an E-L model incorporates pertinent empirical correlations determined from regressing experimental measurements regarding the proppant settling velocity and the drag/lift forces, which is applicable to both the Newtonian and non- Newtonian fluid conditions. The non-Newtonian fluid is usually found to yield a less "heel-biased" pattern of proppant distribution in a hydraulic fracture, e.g., a larger slurry coverage together with a longer proppant dune, while distinct patterns of the dominant factors are observed and evaluated.
Author: Christopher Allen Johnson Blyton
Publisher:
ISBN:
Category :
Languages : en
Pages : 320
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Book Description
Current hydraulic fracturing practice in unconventional resource development typically involves multiple fracturing stages, each consisting of the simultaneous creation of several fractures from a horizontal well. A large mass of proppant, often millions of pounds per well, is injected with the fluid to provide post-closure conductivity. Despite the large quantity of proppant used and its critical importance to well productivity, simple models are often applied to determine its placement in fractures. Propped or effective fracture lengths indicated by modeling may be 100 to 300% larger than the lengths inferred from production data. A common assumption is that the average proppant velocity due to pressure driven flow is equal to the average carrier fluid velocity, while the settling velocity calculation uses Stokes’ law. To more accurately determine the placement of proppant in a fracture, it is necessary to rigorously account for many effects not included in the above assumptions. In this study, the motion of particles flowing with a fluid between fracture walls has been simulated using a coupled computational fluid dynamics and discrete element method (CFD-DEM) that rigorously accounts for the both aspects of the problem. These simulations determine individual particle trajectories as particle to particle and particle to wall collisions occur and include the effect of fluid flow. The results show that the proppant concentration and the ratio of proppant diameter to fracture width govern the relative velocity of proppant and fluid. Proppant settling velocity has been examined for small fracture widths to delineate the effect of several independent variables, including concentration. Simulations demonstrate that larger concentration increases the average settling velocity, in apparent contrast with much of the available literature, which indicates that increased concentration reduces settling velocity. However, this is due to the absence of displacement driven counter current fluid flow. This demonstrates that proppant settling in a hydraulic fracture is more complex than usually considered. A proppant transport model developed from the results of the direct numerical simulations and existing correlations for particle settling velocity has been incorporated into a fully three-dimensional hydraulic fracturing simulator. This simulator couples fracture geomechanics with fluid flow and proppant transport considerations to enable the fracture geometry and proppant distribution to be determined rigorously. Two engineering fracture design parameters, injection rate and proppant diameter, have been varied to show the effect on proppant placement. This allows for an understanding of the relative importance of each and optimization of the treatment to a particular application. The presence of natural fractures in unconventional reservoirs can significantly contribute to well productivity. As proppant is transported along a hydraulic fracture, the presence of a dilated natural fracture forms a fluid accepting branch and may result in proppant entry. The proportion of proppant transported into a branch at steady state has been determined using the CFD-DEM approach and is presented via a dimensionless ‘particle transport coefficient’ through normalization by the proportion of fluid flowing into the branch. Reynolds number at the inlet, branch aperture and the angle of orientation between the main slot and branch, particle size and concentration each affect the transport coefficient. A very different physical process, which controls particle transport into a branch under certain conditions, is the formation of a stable particle bridge preventing subsequent particle transport into the branch. This phenomenon was observed in several simulation cases. The complete set of equations for a three-dimensional formulation of rectangular displacement discontinuity elements has been used to determine the width distribution of a hydraulic fracture and dilated natural fracture. The widths have been determined for several combinations of stress anisotropy, net pressure, hydraulic fracture height and length. The effect of the length, height and orientation of the natural fracture and the elastic moduli of the rock have also been examined. Of the cases examined, many show that natural fracture dilation does not occur. Further, of those cases where dilation is apparent, the proppant transport efficiency corresponding to the natural fracture width is significantly less than one and in many cases zero due to size exclusion. The location and orientation of the natural fracture do not significantly affect its width, while its length and the elastic moduli of the rock substantially change the width.
Author: Dongkeun Lee
Publisher:
ISBN:
Category :
Languages : en
Pages : 390
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Book Description
Hydraulic fracturing in unconsolidated or poorly consolidated formations has been used as a technique for well stimulation and for sand control. Although a large number of hydraulic fracturing operations have been performed in soft formations, the exact mechanisms of failure and fracture propagation remain an unresolved issue. Conventional hydraulic fracturing models based on the theory of linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) consistently predict lower net fracturing pressure, smaller fracture widths and longer fracture lengths in soft formations than observed in the field. Operators who want to design and analyze frac-pack treatments routinely use a hard rock model and need to calibrate and often manipulate input parameters beyond a physically reasonable range to match the net fracturing pressure and well performance data. In this dissertation, we have developed a fully-coupled, three-dimensional hydraulic fracture model for poro-elasto-plastic materials and fluid flow coupled with proppant transport. A computational framework for fluid-structure interaction (FSI) based on finite volume method was developed for modeling of hydraulic fracturing and proppant placement in soft formations. Two separate domains, a fracture and a reservoir domain, are discretized individually, separate equations are solved in the two domains, and their interactions are modeled. The model includes the fully coupled process of power-law fluid flow inside the fracture with proppant transport, fluid leak-off from the fracture into the porous reservoir, pore pressure diffusion into the reservoir, inelastic deformation of the poro-elasto-plastic reservoir, and fracture propagation using a cohesive zone model along with a dynamic meshing procedure. Fully-coupled processes between the two domains, and pressure, flow and displacement coupling within each domain are modeled by an iterative and segregated solution procedure, where each component of the field variable is solved separately, consecutively, and iteratively. We verified the essential components of the model by comparing our simulation results with several well-known analytical solutions (elastoplastic deformation and failure problem, KGD model in a 2-D elastic domain, and KGD model in storage-toughness dominated regime). We applied the model to design and analyze frac-pack operations conducted in a Gulf of Mexico oilfield. Our model is capable of capturing the high net fracturing pressure commonly observed during frac-packing operations without adjusting any input parameters. The model shows quantitatively that plasticity causes lower stress concentration around the fracture tip which shields the tip of the propagating fracture from the fracturing pressure, and retards fracture growth. Our model predicts shorter fracture lengths and wider widths compared to a hard rock model. Shear failure around the fracture and ahead of the tip are modeled. Low cohesion sands tend to fail in shear first then in tension if sufficient pore pressure builds up. We investigated the effect of fluid viscosity, injection rate, and proppant diameter on fracture growth and proppant placement using sensitivity studies. Higher apparent fluid viscosity and injection rate results in wider fractures with better proppant placement, when the fracture is expected to be contained within the payzone. Utilizing larger diameter of proppant leads to settling-dominant proppant placement resulting in the formation of a proppant bank at the bottom of the induced fracture. The new frac-pack model for the first time allows operators to design and analyze hydraulic fracturing stimulations in soft, elastoplastic formations when complex fracturing fluids are used. Our results also provide guidelines for the selection of fracturing fluid rheology, proppant size, and injection rates.
Author: Songyang Tong
Publisher:
ISBN:
Category :
Languages : en
Pages : 0
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During hydraulic fracturing treatments, proppants - usually sand - are placed inside fractures to improve fracture conductivity. However, a large portion of the generated hydraulic fractures often remain unpropped after fracturing treatments. There are two primary reasons for this poor proppant placement. First, proppants settle quickly in common fracturing fluids (e.g., slickwater), which results in unpropped sections at the tip or top of the fracture. Second, a large number of the microfractures are too narrow to accommodate any common commercial proppant. Such unpropped fractures hold a large potential flow capacity as they exhibit a large contact area with the reservoir. However, their potential flow capacity is diminished during production due to closing of unpropped fractures because of closure stress. In this study, fractures are categorized as wider fractures, which are accessible to proppant, and narrower fractures, which are inaccessible to proppant. For wider fractures, proppant transport is important as proppant is needed for keeping them open. For narrower fractures, a chemical formulation is proposed as there is less physical restriction for fluids to flow inside across them. The chemical formulation is expected to improve fracture conductivity by generating roughness on fracture surfaces. This dissertation uses experiments and simulations to investigate proppant transport in a complex fracture network with laboratory-scale transparent fracture slots. Proppant size, injection flow rate and bypass fracture angle are varied and their effects are systematically evaluated. Based on experimental results, a straight-line relationship can be used to quantify the fraction of proppant that flows into bypass fractures with the total amount of proppant injected. A Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model is developed to simulate the experiments; both qualitative and quantitative matches are achieved with this model. It is concluded that the fraction of proppant which flows into bypass fractures could be small unless a significant amount of proppant is injected, which indicates the inefficiency of slickwater in transporting proppant. An alternative fracturing fluid - foam - has been proposed to improve proppant placement because of its proppant carrying capacity. Foam is not a single-phase fluid, and it suffers liquid drainage with time due to gravity. Additionally, the existence of foam bubbles and lamellae could alter the movement of proppants. Experiments and simulations are performed to evaluate proppant placement in field-scale foam fracturing application. A liquid drainage model and a proppant settling correlation are developed and incorporated into an in-housing fracturing simulator. Results indicate that liquid drainage could negatively affect proppant placement, while dry foams could lead to negligible proppant settling and consequently uniform proppant placement. For narrower fractures, two chemical stimulation techniques are proposed to improve fracture conductivity by increasing fracture surface roughness. The first is a nanoparticle-microencapsulated acid (MEA) system for shale acidizing applications, and the second is a new technology which can generate mineral crystals on the shale surface to act as in-situ proppants. The MEA could be released as the fracture closes and the released acid could etch the surface of the rock locally, in a non-uniform way, to improve fracture conductivity (up to 40 times). Furthermore, the in-situ proppant generation technology can lead to crystal growth in both fracking water and formation brine conditions, and it also improves fracture conductivity (up to 10 times) based on core flooding experiments
Author: Lei Zhou
Publisher: Cuvillier Verlag
ISBN: 3736946562
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 172
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Book Description
In this dissertation, two new numerical approaches for hydraulic fracturing in tight reservoir were developed. A more physical-based numerical 3D-model was developed for simulating the whole hydraulic fracturing process including fracture propagation, closure and contact as well as proppant transport and settling. In this approach rock formation, pore and fracture systems were assembled together, in which hydro-mechanical coupling effect, proppant transport and settling as well as their influences on fracture closure and contact were fully considered. A combined FDM and FVM schema was used to solve the problem. Three applications by using the new approach were presented. The results illustrated the whole hydraulic fracturing process well and seemed to be logical, which confirmed the ability of the developed approach to model the in-situ hydraulic fracturing operation from injection start till fully closure. In order to investigate the orientation problem of hydraulic fracturing in tight reservoir, a new approach for simulating arbitrary fracture propagation and orientation in 2D was developed. It was solved by a hybrid schema of XFEM and FVM. Three numerical studies were illustrated, which proved the ability of the developed approach to solve the orientation problem in field cases.
Author: Yibo Song
Publisher:
ISBN:
Category :
Languages : en
Pages :
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Book Description
While hydraulic fracturing is recognized as the most effective stimulation technique for unconventional reservoirs, the production enhancement is influenced by several factors including proppant placement inside the fractures. The goal of this work is to understand the proppant transport and its placement process in "T" shaped fracture network through simulations. The proppant transport is studied numerically by coupling a computational fluid dynamic model for the base shear-thinning fluid and the discrete element methods for proppant particles. In the CFD model, the forces on proppants are calculated based on fluid properties, while fluid properties are updated based on the particle concentration at any point and time. In the DEM model, the motion and position of each individual proppant is calculated based on the gravity and drag forces from the CFD model, which makes it possible to reproduce some phenomena that cannot be simulated in continuum concentration-oriented models. A scaling analysis has been performed to scale down the model from field scale to lab scale by deriving relevant dimensionless variables. Different proppant size distributions and injection velocities are considered, as well as the friction and cohesion effects among particle and fracture surface. The simulation results show that in the primary fracture, the injected proppants could divide into three layers: the bottom sand bed zone, the middle surface rolling zone, and the top slurry flow zone. The total number of the proppants do not increase much after the sand dune reach an equilibrium height. A smaller size proppant would benefit the development of sand dune in the secondary fracture, whereas a larger proppant size would benefit the increase rate of the sand dune. The equilibrium height of sand dune in the minor fracture could be greater than the primary fracture, and the distribution of proppant dunes is symmetric. A lower proppant load would amplify the impact of friction as well as the erosion force, which would finally deliver a negative impact on equilibrium height. Two deposit mechanisms have also identified in the bypass fracture network.
Author: Oliver Chang
Publisher:
ISBN:
Category :
Languages : en
Pages :
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Book Description
Hydraulic fracturing is one of the most successful and widely applied techniques that ensure economic recovery from unconventional reservoirs. Oil and gas bearing formation has pre-existing natural fractures and possesses a large proportion in hydrocarbon resources. Distinct fracture propagational behavior and operational variation both affect the entire hydraulic fracturing treatment. Proppant transport and fracture network conductivity are the most significant factors determining the effectiveness of a treatment. The concept of stimulated reservoir volume (SRV) is used to characterize the efficiency of hydraulic fracturing treatment. However, the unpropped fracture will close after the well starts to produce without contributing hydrocarbon recovery. Only the propped open section of fracture contributes to the hydrocarbon recovery. Therefore, the concept of propped open stimulated reservoir volume (PSRV) is proposed to characterize the effectiveness of the treatment. Physics of proppant transport in a complex fracture network is unclear to the engineers. Most of the model simulates using simplified physics. In this work, we first identified the patterns of proppant transport and we developed equations to quantify the governing physics in each pattern, in order to capture the proppant transport process accurately. To quantify the PSRV, a dynamic 3-D, finite-difference, proppant transport model is developed and linked to a hydraulic fracture propagation model to simulate the process of proppant transport through the hydraulic fracture network. The actual propped open stimulated reservoir volume (PSRV) and fracture network conductivity can be quantified by utilizing the model. The goal of this study is to generate guidelines to maximize the effectiveness of the hydraulic fracturing treatment. Hence, a systematic parametric study was conducted to investigate the relation among engineering factors, geomechanical and reservoir properties. The effect of each parameter on PSRV, PSRV/SRV efficiency ratio, and average fracture conductivity during pressure pumping, flowback and shut-in is evaluate and quantified. Guidelines to optimize the effectiveness of hydraulic fracturing treatment for different scenarios are established based on the systematic parametric study.
Author: Sahil Malhotra
Publisher:
ISBN:
Category :
Languages : en
Pages : 0
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This dissertation presents an experimental investigation of fluid flow, proppant settling and horizontal proppant transport in hydraulic fractures. The work is divided into two major sections: investigation of proppant settling in polymer-free surfactant-based viscoelastic (VES) fluids and development of a new method of proppant injection, referred to as Alternate-Slug fracturing. VES fluid systems have been used to eliminate polymer-based damage and to efficiently transport proppant into the fracture. Current models and correlations neglect the important influence of fracture walls and fluid elasticity on proppant settling. Experimental data is presented to show that elastic effects can increase or decrease the settling velocity of particles, even in the creeping flow regime. Experimental data shows that significant drag reduction occurs at low Weissenberg number, followed by a transition to drag enhancement at higher Weissenberg numbers. A new correlation is presented for the sphere settling velocity in unbounded viscoelastic fluids as a function of the fluid rheology and the proppant properties. The wall factors for sphere settling velocities in viscoelastic fluids confined between solid parallel plates (fracture walls) are calculated from experimental measurements made on these fluids over a range of Weissenberg numbers. Results indicate that elasticity reduces the retardation effect of the confining walls and this reduction is more pronounced at higher ratios of the particle diameter to spacing between the walls. Shear thinning behavior of fluids is also observed to reduce the retardation effect of the confining walls. A new empirical correlation for wall factors for spheres settling in a viscoelastic fluid confined between two parallel walls is presented. An experimental study on proppant placement using a new method of fracturing referred to as Alternate-Slug fracturing is presented. This method involves alternate injection of low viscosity and high viscosity fluids into the fracture, with proppant pumped in the low viscosity fluid. Experiments are conducted in Hele-Shaw cells to study the growth of viscous fingers over a wide range of viscosity ratios. Data is presented to show that the viscous finger velocities and mixing zone velocities increase with viscosity ratio up to viscosity ratios of about 350 and the trend is consistent with Koval's theory. However, at higher viscosity ratios the mixing zone velocity values plateau signifying no further effect of viscosity contrast on the growth of fingers and mixing zone. The plateau in the velocities at high viscosity ratios is caused by an increase in the thickness of the displacing fluid and a reduction in the thin film of the displaced fluid on the walls of the Hele-Shaw cell. Fluid elasticity is observed to retard the growth of fingers and leads to growth of multiple thin fingers as compared to a single thick dominant finger in less elastic fluids. Observations show the shielding effect is reduced by fluid elasticity. Elastic effects are observed to reduce the thickness of thin film of displaced fluid on the walls of Hele-Shaw cell. The dominant wave number for the growth of instabilities is observed to be higher in more elastic fluids. At the onset of instability, the interface breaks down into a greater number of fingers in more elastic fluids. Experiments are performed in simulated fractures (slot cells) to show the proppant distribution using alternate-slug fracturing. Observations show alternate-slug fracturing ensures deeper placement of proppant through two primary mechanisms: (a) proppant transport in viscous fingers formed by the low viscosity fluid and (b) an increase in drag force in the polymer slug leading to better entrainment and displacement of any proppant banks that may have formed. The method offers advantages of lower polymer costs, lower pumping horsepower, smaller fracture widths, better control of fluid leak-off and less gel damage compared to conventional gel fracs.
Author: Nisreen Ali Hussein Alseamr
Publisher:
ISBN:
Category :
Languages : en
Pages : 220
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Book Description
Hydraulic fracturing is a process for the extraction of hydrocarbons from underground formations. It involves pumping a specialized fluid into the wellbore under high pressures to form and support fractures in the rock. Fracturing stimulates the well to increase the production of oil and the natural gas which are the pillars of the energy economy. Key to this process is the use of proppants, which are solid materials used to keep the fractures open. Understanding the transport of proppant particles through a fluid is important to improve the efficiency and reduce environmental impact of fracturing. An increase of the settling velocity for instance, will impede the hydraulic fracturing process by reducing well productivity, or necessitate use of chemical additives. This thesis presents a theoretical investigation of the settling velocity of proppant particles. The effect of different parameters on the settling velocity were studied by manipulating the main factors that can influence particle transport. These include size of the particle (300 [micro]m- 2000 [micro]m), sphericity, density (1200 kg/m3-3500 kg/m3) and concentration. These typical values were obtained from commercially available proppants currently used in industry. Various correlations were investigated, assuming the carrier (fracturing) fluid to be an ideal Newtonian and as a power law (non-Newtonian) fluid. This will help predict the settling velocity for proppant particles in order to increase well productivity, and improve hydraulic fracturing efficiency. The models show that changing the carrier fluid viscosity and particle properties such as diameter, density, sphericity, and concentration leads to a significant change in the proppant settling velocity. For instance, reduction in particle size, density, and sphericity tend to reduce the settling velocity, while increasing the concentration of the particles and the fluid viscosity reduce the settling velocity.
Author: D. Mader
Publisher: Elsevier
ISBN: 0080868843
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 1277
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Book Description
Many aspects of hydraulic proppant fracturing have changed since its innovation in 1947. The main significance of this book is its combination of technical and economical aspects to provide an integrated overview of the various applications of proppants in hydraulic fracturing, and gravel in sand control. The monitoring of fractures and gravel packs by well-logging and seismic techniques is also included.The book's extensive coverage of the subject should be of special interest to reservoir geologists and engineers, production engineers and technologists, and well log analysts.
