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Author: Robert J. Littman
Publisher: BRILL
ISBN: 900417107X
Category : Religion
Languages : en
Pages : 260
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Book Description
Tobit is one of the Apocrypha, a collection of books rejected from their canon by the Jews but accepted by some of the Christian church fathers. Ever since the 4th century CE, commentaries have been written on Tobit. The original Hebrew and Aramaic versions of Tobit were lost, until fragments were discovered as part of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947. The present work is the first Greek text and commentary of Tobit to be published since the publication of the Hebrew and Aramaic fragments. This edition contains the text from two fourth century CE manuscripts, the Codex Sinaiticus (long version) and Codex Vaticanus (short version) as well as a translation into English and a commentary.
Author: Robert J. Littman
Publisher: BRILL
ISBN: 900417107X
Category : Religion
Languages : en
Pages : 260
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Book Description
Tobit is one of the Apocrypha, a collection of books rejected from their canon by the Jews but accepted by some of the Christian church fathers. Ever since the 4th century CE, commentaries have been written on Tobit. The original Hebrew and Aramaic versions of Tobit were lost, until fragments were discovered as part of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947. The present work is the first Greek text and commentary of Tobit to be published since the publication of the Hebrew and Aramaic fragments. This edition contains the text from two fourth century CE manuscripts, the Codex Sinaiticus (long version) and Codex Vaticanus (short version) as well as a translation into English and a commentary.
Author: Scriptural Research Institute
Publisher: Scriptural Research Institute
ISBN: 1990289029
Category : Religion
Languages : en
Pages : 94
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Book Description
The Book of Tobit appears to be from an older sect of Judaism, likely the one led by the 'false priest' Tobiah, who was expelled from the temple by Ezra when his genealogy could not be proven in 2ⁿᵈ Ezra. 2ⁿᵈ Ezra was the version of Ezra used by the Pharisee sect which emerged under the Hasmonean Dynasty, while Tobit, along with Enoch, Jubilees, and Job appears to have primarily been used by the Essenes sects. The Book of Tobit is generally viewed as fiction by most scholars for a variety of reasons. One major reason it is viewed as fiction is the presence of Tobit's cousin Ahikar, in both versions of the book, who is the protagonist of the Words of Ahikar, a book set in the same era, which is also considered fiction. It is quite clear from the text of Tobit, that it is the same Ahikar, and not just someone with the same name, as Ahikar's betrayal by his nephew is mentioned, which is part of the early section of Ahikar. Nevertheless, both books, Tobit and Ahikar survive in various forms, meaning that they were edited multiple times before the versions that survive to the present were transcribed. The surviving copies of the Septuagint include two versions of the Book of Tobit, the more common form, found in the Codex Vaticanus, Codex Alexandrinus, and most other surviving copies of the Septuagint, and the less common version found in the Codex Sinaiticus. The differences between the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus versions of Tobit are too extensive to treat the books as the same book, however, their story is essentially the same. The two books must have had a common source, however, the Sinaiticus's version is over 20% longer than the Vaticanus's version, and appears to be an older version of Tobit. One of the reasons that the Book of Tobit is interpreted as fiction, is the existence of historical errors and anachronisms found in the Vaticanus version, which includes the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar and the Persian king Ahasuerus jointly destroying Nineveh, the capital of the Assyrian Empire. Nineveh was sacked by Babylonian King Nabopolassar in 612 BC, along with Median and Persian allies, led by the Median King Cyaxares, who then integrated the city into his Median Empire. Nabopolassar's son Nebuchadnezzar, who assumed the throne in 605 BC, finally conquered the remnants of the Assyrian forces in Syria at the Battle of Carchemish that same year, however, he did not attack or destroy Nineveh. Meanwhile, the name Ahasuerus was the Aramaic name of Xerxes, the Persian king who ruled between 486 and 465 BC.
Author: British Library
Publisher:
ISBN: 9780712349987
Category : Bible
Languages : en
Pages : 0
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Book Description
Codex Sinaiticus is one of the world's most remarkable books. Written in Greek in the fourth century, it is the oldest surviving complete New Testament, and one of the two oldest manuscripts of the whole Bible. No other early manuscript of the Christian Bible has been so extensively corrected, and the significance of Codex Sinaiticus for the reconstruction of the Christian Bible's original text, the history of the Bible and the history of western book making is immense. Since 2002, a major international project has been creating an electronic version of the manuscript. This magnificent printed facsimile reunites the text, now divided between the British Library, the National Library of Russia, St Catherine's Monastery, Mt Sinai and Leipzig University Library.
Author: Scriptural Research Institute
Publisher: Digital Ink Productions
ISBN: 198960465X
Category : Religion
Languages : en
Pages : 1411
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Book Description
In the mid 3ʳᵈ century BC, King Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt ordered a translation of the ancient Israelite scriptures for the Library of Alexandria. This translation later became known as the Septuagint, based on the description of the translation by seventy translators in the Letter of Aristeas. By 132 BC, the Septuagint included all the books later adopted by the Byzantine Orthodox church as the Old Testament section of the Christian Bible. Some of these books were rejected by the Hebrew translators during the Hasmonean Dynasty of Judea, and never formed part of the Masoretic text. The Septuagint of 132 BC, included four sections: the Torah, History, Wisdom, and Prophets sections. The History section includes the books of Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Kingdoms, Paralipomena, Ezra, Tobit, Judith, Esther, and Maccabees. One of the problems with academic translations of the Septuagint, is the use of unfamiliar names or terms, as the Septuagint was written in Greek, and therefore many names are unrecognizable to modern readers who are used to Hebrew-derived names. This project uses the more commonly understood Hebrew-derived names instead of their Greek translations, such as Canaan instead of Chanaan, and Melchizedek instead of Melchisedec. Common modern names are also used instead of either Greek or Hebrew terms when geographical locations are known, such as the archaeological name Uruk instead of the Greek Orech, or the Hebrew Erech, and the archaeological term Sumer instead of Shinar or Senar. While this could be argued as not being a correct academic procedure, it does fulfill the goal of making the translation easy to read and understand.
Author: Scriptural Research Institute
Publisher: Scriptural Research Institute
ISBN: 1998288730
Category : Religion
Languages : en
Pages : 817
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Book Description
In the mid 3ʳᵈ century BC, King Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt ordered a translation of the ancient Israelite scriptures for the Library of Alexandria. This translation later became known as the Septuagint, based on the description of the translation by seventy translators in the Letter of Aristeas. The History section of the Septuagint contained the books that told the history of the Israelite and Judahites from Joshua's conquest of Canaan circa 1500 BC, until the establishment of the Hasmonean dynasty in Judea, in 140 BC. Septuagint: History, Volume 2, is composed of modern, non-theological translations of the books of Paralipomena, Ezra, Tobit, Judith, Esther, and Maccabees, which spanned roughly 950 BC to the creation of the Hasmonean kingdom of Judea in 140 BC. The books cover several eras of Judahite history, beginning with the fragmentary stories found in Paralipomena, books likely originating in Edom. The stories in Paralipomena cover the same eras as those found in the books of the Kingdoms, however, occasionally contradict the books of the Kingdoms, and are therefore viewed as an auxiliary version of Judahite history by biblical scholars. The two surviving versions of the books of Tobit are set during the Neo-Assyrian era, which also appears to have been the origin of the book of Judith. Both Judith and the Codex Vaticanus’ version of Tobit have been edited into anachronistic nonsense, however, the Sinaiticus version of Tobit still survives, which appears to be consistent with the history of the era, indicating the books likely did originate in the Neo-Assyrian and/or Median empires. Tobit specifically claims the first part of the book was written in Assyria, while the later sections had to have been written in Media, as the author reported moving there. The books of Ezra cover the era from the Persian conquest of Babylon, until 351 BC, less than 20 years before Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire. While the historical events in Jerusalem are not clearly understood during the Persian era, the sequence of events described in the books of Ezra do fit into the major events of Persian history well, however, have not generally been understood until the last two centuries, when archaeology in Iran produced a coherent view of Persian history. Historically, understanding the events in the books of Ezra, as well as Esther, which is set during the Persian Empire, was complicated by Rabbinical history, which redacted most of Persian history from the Judean records, as well as the fact that so many Persian kings held the same name. There were 5 kings named Artaxerxes, 3 named Darius, and 2 named Xerxes, and the dating of major events in the books of Ezra, used regal years without specifying which Artaxerxes, Xerxes, or Darius’s reign the year relates too. Three of the book of the Maccabees were added to the Septuagint in the 1ˢᵗ or late 2ⁿᵈ century BC, while a forth was added in the 1ˢᵗ century AD. Many other books of the Maccabees also exist, in Aramaic, Arabic, Ge‘ez, and Yiddish. The books recount events that supposedly lead up to the Maccabean revolt in Judea, between 165 and 140 BC. Other than the first book, they have never been considered historically valid by rabbis or historians, and few Christian scholars have viewed them as a true record of events from the era. The fourth book labelled Maccabees in the Septuagint, is a philosophical reinterpretation of the events found throughout the Septuagint, from a 1ˢᵗ century Jewish perspective.
Author: Scriptural Research Institute
Publisher: Digital Ink Productions
ISBN: 1989604285
Category : Religion
Languages : en
Pages : 108
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Book Description
In the mid 3ʳᵈ century BC, King Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt ordered a translation of the ancient Hebrew scriptures for the Library of Alexandria, which resulted in the creation of the Septuagint. It is generally accepted that there were several versions of the ancient Hebrew and Samaritan scriptures before the translation of the Septuagint. The two books of Ezra were translated into Greek and added to the Septuagint before 200 BC when a large number of refugees fled the ongoing wars in Judea and settled in Egypt. The two books of Ezra were two different versions of the same basic story, one likely a Sadducee version, and the other a Pharisee text. 2ⁿᵈ Ezra became in the Masoretic Texts' version of Ezra, and by the year 100 AD, the Apocalypse of Ezra was in circulation as 3ʳᵈ Ezra. This has created some confusion among Biblical Translators throughout the centuries. This version of Ezra is called 1ˢᵗ Esdras (1ˢᵗ Ezra) in Orthodox Bibles and Protestant Bibles that include the Apocrypha, 3 Esdras in Catholic Bibles that include the Apocrypha, and Greek Ezra in the Ethiopian Bible. The Septuagint's 1ˢᵗ and 2ⁿᵈ Ezra are thematically similar, telling the generally same story, however from two different points of view. They tell the story of the fall of Jerusalem, first to the Egyptians, and then the Babylonians, followed by Babylon's fall to the Persians, following which the Judahites returned to Judah and rebuilt the temple in Jerusalem. 1ˢᵗ Ezra was clearly written from a non-spiritual viewpoint, common among the Sadducees, and repeatedly makes it clear that the author, Ezra, and various kings, viewed the Lord as the Judahite version of other gods, including the Egyptian creator and Sun-god Atum, and the Zoroastrian 'god of truth' and 'King of the Sky' Ahura Mazda. These views are inconsistent with the view of the Pharisees, which developed under the rule of the Hasmonean dynasty after Judea broke free from the rule of the Greeks, and the Lord became a separate god from all others. Both the Greek translations of 1ˢᵗ and 2ⁿᵈ Ezra, and the Hebrew translation of Ezra-Nehemiah (2ⁿᵈ Ezra), contain relics of an Aramaic source-text, unfortunately, the Aramaic Book of Ezra is lost. The difference in the surviving Aramaic words within the Greek 1ˢᵗ Ezra, and Hebrew Ezra-Nehemiah, it appears that the two versions of Ezra already existed in the Aramaic versions. 1ˢᵗ Ezra, the less spiritual of the two, clearly dates to the Persian era, as it treats the Judahite Lord of the Temple in Jerusalem as another version of Ahura Mazda, the Zoroastrian God. Several Zoroastrian titles of Ahura Mazda are applied to the Judahite Lord, including King of Truth, and King of the Sky. Letters from the Persian Kings Cyrus II, Artaxerxes I, and Darius II, as included in the book, all of which were closely associated with Zoroastrianism, yet, referred to the Judahite Lord using titles generally associated with Ahura Mazda. In the Greek 1ˢᵗ Ezra and 2ⁿᵈ Ezra, and the Hebrew Ezra-Nehemiah, the temple is described as being a Zoroastrian fire-temple, containing an eternal fire, which Nehemiah even referred to as burning naphtha, like the other fire-temples across the Persian Empire.
Author: Scriptural Research Institute
Publisher: Digital Ink Productions
ISBN: 1989852114
Category : Religion
Languages : en
Pages : 111
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Book Description
In the early centuries of the Christian era, several texts called the Apocalypse of Ezra were in circulation among Jews and Christians. The original is believed to have been written in Hebrew, Aramaic, or Syriac, and is commonly known as the Judahite Apocalypse of Ezra. This version was translated into Greek sometime before 200 AD and circulated widely within the early Christian churches. This book claimed that the prophet ‘Shealtiel, who was called Ezra’ wrote 904 books, and its popularity seems to have inspired several Christian era Apocalypses of Ezra, presumably beginning with the short Latin Apocalypse of Ezra which claimed to be the ‘second book of the prophet Ezra.’ The prophet Shealtiel was not Ezra the scribe, who the books of Ezra are named after in the Septuagint and Masoretic text, but the son of former King Jehoiachin of Judah, who had been taken captive by the Babylonians in 597 BC. The shorter Latin Apocalypse of Ezra has become fused with the Judahite Apocalypse of Ezra in most Catholic and Protestant translations, however, scholars divide the Catholic versions of 4ᵗʰ Esdras (Protestant 2ⁿᵈ Esdras) into three sections, with only the core twelve chapters that correspond to the Orthodox and Ethiopian versions of the book labeled as 4ᵗʰ Ezra. The opening two chapters, which are only found in the Catholic version, are labeled as 5ᵗʰ Ezra, while the last 2 chapters found in Catholic version, as well as fragments surviving in an ancient Greek translation, are labeled 6ᵗʰ Ezra. 5ᵗʰ Ezra and 6ᵗʰ Ezra appear to have originally been one document, which is commonly called the Latin Apocalypse of Ezra, although it was almost certainly not written in Latin. In chapter 1 and 2 of the apocalypse, which is 5ᵗʰ Ezra, the author claimed to be Ezra the scribe, and gave his genealogy, which is found in the books of Ezra found in the Masoretic text and Septuagint, however, then claims he had been held captive in Media during the time of Artaxerxes. Chapter 3 and the beginning of chapter 4 of the apocalypse, the bulk of 6ᵗʰ Ezra, appears to be much older, and describe a world that the author of the longer apocalypse did not seem to understand. The prophecy itself was focused on fall of the Assyrian Empire, which did fall in 609 BC. The Assyrian Empire fell to a large alliance of its enemies, including the Medes, Scythians, and the rebelling Babylonians. The prophet, whoever it was, did not know this would happen, and did not mention the Medes or Scythians, and prophesied that after defeating the Assyrians, the conquerors would besiege Babylon, demonstrating the prophesy was made before Babylon revolted in 626 BC.
Author: Scriptural Research Institute
Publisher: Digital Ink Productions
ISBN: 1989852750
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 22
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Book Description
Ahmose pen-Nekhbet was a major figure during the early years of the New Kingdom, who, like his contemporary Ahmose pen-Ebana, appears to have been from the city of El Kab, where his tomb was found. His autobiography is much shorter than pen-Ebana’s autobiography, however, is also far more damaged. This translation follows the general reconstruction that most Egyptologists agree on, however, sections of the original text may have been lost entirely before it was rediscovered in the late 1800s. Like pen-Ebana, he served a series of kings, starting with Ahmose I, and continuing through Amenhotep I, Thutmose II, Hatshepsut, and finally Thutmose III, meaning he served for decades longer than Ahmose pen-Ebana. This difference in length of service is likely due to his higher position within Egyptian society, already reportedly the herald of the king at a battle in Djahy, which may have been the Battle of Sharuhen. Ahmose pen-Nekhbet’s autobiography does not mention the Battle of Avaris, which had taken place a few years earlier, implying he became the king’s herald after the Hyksos dynasty lost Avaris. Egyptologists debate what exactly pen-Nekhbet meant by Djahy, and some believe King Ahmose I may have marched his army north from Sharuhen through southern Canaan to restore order in the region, however, there is no corroborating evidence of this known, and there is no reason to assume he wasn’t talking about Sharuhen, as Sharuhen was in Djahy, the ancient Egyptian name for southern Canaan. Ahmose pen-Nekhbet then mentioned serving King Amenhotep I in the campaigns in Kush, where he captured slaves, like Ahmose pen-Ebana. Unlike pen-Ebana, however, pen-Nekhbet only mentioned one campaign in Kush, which implies that he did not partake in most of the campaigns in Nubia unless those stories were lost in the damaged sections. Pen-Nekhbet’s story also includes a reference to a campaign against what appear to be the Berber tribes of the Sahara. He referred to a campaign against the Iamu-Kehek, which includes the name Kehek, a Libyan tribe later mentioned during the reign of Ramesses III, circa 1188 BC. The Thebans are recorded to having occupied the five oases of the western desert during their war against the Hyksos, including the Kharga Oasis, Dakhla Oasis, now dry Farafra depression, Bahariya Oasis, and the Fayyum. This reference to the Iamu-Kehek implies the army of Amenhotep I pushed west through the Sahara desert, likely to Siwa Oasis, where an ancient oracle temple of Amen existed by the 10th century BC.
Author: Scriptural Research Institute
Publisher: Scriptural Research Institute
ISBN: 1989852688
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 40
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Book Description
The story of the Voyage of Wenamen, also called the Report of Wenamen, or the Misadventures of Wenamen, is considered one of the earliest surviving adventure tales. Unlike many of their neighboring cultures, the Egyptians did not write historical narratives, the text must have started as an autobiography of Wenamen circa 1065 BC. The one partially surviving copy appears to have been excerpted from the original autobiography, copied for one of the Meshwesh (Berber) Pharaohs that ruled the late 21ˢᵗ Dynasty after Osorkon the Elder seized the throne in 992 BC. It appears as if only the sections about Canaan were copied, which suggests the Pharaoh in question was looking for information on Canaan, likely as a prelude to an invasion. The surviving text includes the beginning of Wenamen's voyage, but not the beginning of his biography, which would have included his titles and honors and the story of how he became a priest of Amen. The surviving text covers Wenamen's voyage from his departure from Thebes, through his stops in the Egyptian capital of Tanis, and the coastal Canaanite cities of Dor, Tyre, and Byblos, before his ship was blown off course to Cyprus, and the story abruptly ends. The section that covers the stop in Tyre is in the damaged section, in the middle of the story, and only survives in fragments. The abrupt ending of the story is clearly not the end of Wenamen's Biography as it does not include his return to Egypt, which must have taken place or his story would never have been known to the Egyptians.
Author: Scriptural Research Institute
Publisher: Scriptural Research Institute
ISBN: 1989852777
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 27
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Book Description
Thoth the Nobleman was a herald of Queen Hatshepsut and her young son Thutmose III, who seems to have died while she was still ruling Egypt, as his autobiography refers to her as the King of Egypt. After she died, Thutmose III tried to remove all records of her being king, although she was still mentioned in newly written biographies as the 'divine wife' and 'chief royal wife' of Pharaoh Thutmose II. Thoth the Nobleman reports that he was trusted by Queen Hatshepsut more than anyone else, as he kept quiet about what was happening in the palace. This statement may not be entirely true as the architect Senenmut is generally considered to have been her lover. Another theory is that Senenmut may have been a homosexual friend of hers, which would then open the possibility that Thoth the Nobleman was her lover. Graffiti depicting a female or hermaphrodite pharaoh having sex with a man was discovered in an incomplete temple near the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, which is generally assumed to have been a representation of Senenmut, however, only the image survives without any writing that identifies the man, who could have been any Egyptian man, including Thoth the Nobleman, or simply intended as a representative figure of a generic male intended to insult the 'king' by depicting 'him' as a female. As this graffiti is depicted close to the massive and iconic Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, it is clear that at least some of the men in Egypt did not view her as a 'king' even late in her reign, which supports the rebellion of the 'Wicked-Evil Kushite' in the Syrian Rivers province for the first eight years of her reign in the Septuagint's Book of Judges. Thoth the Nobleman described working on many major projects throughout the reign of Queen Hatshepsut, including her Mortuary Temple, the Temples at Karnak, and the mysterious Hahut, a great sanctuary of Amen on his horizon in the west, which may have been an early reference to the Oracle Temple of Amen in the Siwa Oasis. Thoth the Nobleman also reported working on the ceremonial boat of Amen called 'Amen's Mighty of Prow.' Three centuries later, when the High Priest of Amen Her-Heru attempted to replicate this deed, it led to the problematic Voyage of Wenamen.
