Author: Frank J. Fabozzi
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1118067568
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 708
Book Description
An updated guide to the theory and practice of investment management Many books focus on the theory of investment management and leave the details of the implementation of the theory up to you. This book illustrates how theory is applied in practice while stressing the importance of the portfolio construction process. The Second Edition of The Theory and Practice of Investment Management is the ultimate guide to understanding the various aspects of investment management and investment vehicles. Tying together theoretical advances in investment management with actual practical applications, this book gives you a unique opportunity to use proven investment management techniques to protect and grow a portfolio under many different circumstances. Contains new material on the latest tools and strategies for both equity and fixed income portfolio management Includes key take-aways as well as study questions at the conclusion of each chapter A timely updated guide to an important topic in today's investment world This comprehensive investment management resource combines real-world financial knowledge with investment management theory to provide you with the practical guidance needed to succeed within the investment management arena.
The Theory and Practice of Investment Management
Author: Frank J. Fabozzi
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1118067568
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 708
Book Description
An updated guide to the theory and practice of investment management Many books focus on the theory of investment management and leave the details of the implementation of the theory up to you. This book illustrates how theory is applied in practice while stressing the importance of the portfolio construction process. The Second Edition of The Theory and Practice of Investment Management is the ultimate guide to understanding the various aspects of investment management and investment vehicles. Tying together theoretical advances in investment management with actual practical applications, this book gives you a unique opportunity to use proven investment management techniques to protect and grow a portfolio under many different circumstances. Contains new material on the latest tools and strategies for both equity and fixed income portfolio management Includes key take-aways as well as study questions at the conclusion of each chapter A timely updated guide to an important topic in today's investment world This comprehensive investment management resource combines real-world financial knowledge with investment management theory to provide you with the practical guidance needed to succeed within the investment management arena.
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1118067568
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 708
Book Description
An updated guide to the theory and practice of investment management Many books focus on the theory of investment management and leave the details of the implementation of the theory up to you. This book illustrates how theory is applied in practice while stressing the importance of the portfolio construction process. The Second Edition of The Theory and Practice of Investment Management is the ultimate guide to understanding the various aspects of investment management and investment vehicles. Tying together theoretical advances in investment management with actual practical applications, this book gives you a unique opportunity to use proven investment management techniques to protect and grow a portfolio under many different circumstances. Contains new material on the latest tools and strategies for both equity and fixed income portfolio management Includes key take-aways as well as study questions at the conclusion of each chapter A timely updated guide to an important topic in today's investment world This comprehensive investment management resource combines real-world financial knowledge with investment management theory to provide you with the practical guidance needed to succeed within the investment management arena.
Investment Management
Author: Frank J. Fabozzi
Publisher: Pearson Education
ISBN:
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 874
Book Description
The job of planning, implementing, and overseeing the funds of an individual investor or an institution is referred to as investment management. The purpose of this book is to describe the process of investment management.
Publisher: Pearson Education
ISBN:
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 874
Book Description
The job of planning, implementing, and overseeing the funds of an individual investor or an institution is referred to as investment management. The purpose of this book is to describe the process of investment management.
In Pursuit of the Perfect Portfolio
Author: Andrew W. Lo
Publisher: Princeton University Press
ISBN: 0691215200
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 414
Book Description
Is there an ideal portfolio of investment assets, one that perfectly balances risk and reward? In Pursuit of the Perfect Portfolio examines this question by profiling and interviewing ten of the most prominent figures in the finance world,Jack Bogle, Charley Ellis, Gene Fama, Marty Liebowitz, Harry Markowitz, Bob Merton, Myron Scholes, Bill Sharpe, Bob Shiller, and Jeremy Siegel. We learn about the personal and intellectual journeys of these luminaries, which include six Nobel Laureates and a trailblazer in mutual funds, and their most innovative contributions. In the process, we come to understand how the science of modern investing came to be. Each of these finance greats discusses their idea of a perfect portfolio, offering invaluable insights to today's investor
Publisher: Princeton University Press
ISBN: 0691215200
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 414
Book Description
Is there an ideal portfolio of investment assets, one that perfectly balances risk and reward? In Pursuit of the Perfect Portfolio examines this question by profiling and interviewing ten of the most prominent figures in the finance world,Jack Bogle, Charley Ellis, Gene Fama, Marty Liebowitz, Harry Markowitz, Bob Merton, Myron Scholes, Bill Sharpe, Bob Shiller, and Jeremy Siegel. We learn about the personal and intellectual journeys of these luminaries, which include six Nobel Laureates and a trailblazer in mutual funds, and their most innovative contributions. In the process, we come to understand how the science of modern investing came to be. Each of these finance greats discusses their idea of a perfect portfolio, offering invaluable insights to today's investor
The Theory and Practice of Investment Management
Author: Frank J. Fabozzi
Publisher: Wiley
ISBN: 9780471228998
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 0
Book Description
Expert advice that applies the theory and practice of investment management to today's financial environment The changing nature and rapid growth of the investment management industry, along with new theoretical developments in the field of finance, have led to a need for higher quality investment management practices and better qualified professionals. The Theory and Practice of Investment Management recognizes these needs and addresses them with sharp, innovative insights from some of the most respected experts in the field of investment management. The Theory and Practice of Investment Management discusses and describes the full scope of investment products and strategies available in today's market. Led by financial experts Frank Fabozzi and Harry Markowitz, the contributors to this book are active, successful practitioners with hands-on expertise. By combining real-world financial knowledge with investment management theory, this book provides a complete analysis of all pertinent investment products-including hedge funds and private equity-and explores a wide range of investment strategies. Tying together theoretical advances in investment management with actual applications, this book gives readers an opportunity to use proven investment management techniques to protect and grow a portfolio under many different circumstances.
Publisher: Wiley
ISBN: 9780471228998
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 0
Book Description
Expert advice that applies the theory and practice of investment management to today's financial environment The changing nature and rapid growth of the investment management industry, along with new theoretical developments in the field of finance, have led to a need for higher quality investment management practices and better qualified professionals. The Theory and Practice of Investment Management recognizes these needs and addresses them with sharp, innovative insights from some of the most respected experts in the field of investment management. The Theory and Practice of Investment Management discusses and describes the full scope of investment products and strategies available in today's market. Led by financial experts Frank Fabozzi and Harry Markowitz, the contributors to this book are active, successful practitioners with hands-on expertise. By combining real-world financial knowledge with investment management theory, this book provides a complete analysis of all pertinent investment products-including hedge funds and private equity-and explores a wide range of investment strategies. Tying together theoretical advances in investment management with actual applications, this book gives readers an opportunity to use proven investment management techniques to protect and grow a portfolio under many different circumstances.
The Mathematics of Financial Modeling and Investment Management
Author: Sergio M. Focardi
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 0471674230
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 802
Book Description
the mathematics of financial modeling & investment management The Mathematics of Financial Modeling & Investment Management covers a wide range of technical topics in mathematics and finance-enabling the investment management practitioner, researcher, or student to fully understand the process of financial decision-making and its economic foundations. This comprehensive resource will introduce you to key mathematical techniques-matrix algebra, calculus, ordinary differential equations, probability theory, stochastic calculus, time series analysis, optimization-as well as show you how these techniques are successfully implemented in the world of modern finance. Special emphasis is placed on the new mathematical tools that allow a deeper understanding of financial econometrics and financial economics. Recent advances in financial econometrics, such as tools for estimating and representing the tails of the distributions, the analysis of correlation phenomena, and dimensionality reduction through factor analysis and cointegration are discussed in depth. Using a wealth of real-world examples, Focardi and Fabozzi simultaneously show both the mathematical techniques and the areas in finance where these techniques are applied. They also cover a variety of useful financial applications, such as: * Arbitrage pricing * Interest rate modeling * Derivative pricing * Credit risk modeling * Equity and bond portfolio management * Risk management * And much more Filled with in-depth insight and expert advice, The Mathematics of Financial Modeling & Investment Management clearly ties together financial theory and mathematical techniques.
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 0471674230
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 802
Book Description
the mathematics of financial modeling & investment management The Mathematics of Financial Modeling & Investment Management covers a wide range of technical topics in mathematics and finance-enabling the investment management practitioner, researcher, or student to fully understand the process of financial decision-making and its economic foundations. This comprehensive resource will introduce you to key mathematical techniques-matrix algebra, calculus, ordinary differential equations, probability theory, stochastic calculus, time series analysis, optimization-as well as show you how these techniques are successfully implemented in the world of modern finance. Special emphasis is placed on the new mathematical tools that allow a deeper understanding of financial econometrics and financial economics. Recent advances in financial econometrics, such as tools for estimating and representing the tails of the distributions, the analysis of correlation phenomena, and dimensionality reduction through factor analysis and cointegration are discussed in depth. Using a wealth of real-world examples, Focardi and Fabozzi simultaneously show both the mathematical techniques and the areas in finance where these techniques are applied. They also cover a variety of useful financial applications, such as: * Arbitrage pricing * Interest rate modeling * Derivative pricing * Credit risk modeling * Equity and bond portfolio management * Risk management * And much more Filled with in-depth insight and expert advice, The Mathematics of Financial Modeling & Investment Management clearly ties together financial theory and mathematical techniques.
Investment Manager Analysis
Author: Frank J. Travers
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1118160894
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 321
Book Description
Praise for Investment Manager Analysis "This is a book that should have been written years ago. It provides a practical, thorough, and completely objective method to analyze and select an investment manager. It takes the mystery (and the consultants) out of the equation. Without question, this book belongs on every Plan Sponsor's desk." —Dave Davenport, Assistant Treasurer, Lord Corporation, author of The Equity Manager Search "An insightful compendium of the issues that challenge those responsible for hiring and firing investment managers. Frank Travers does a good job of taking complicated analytical tools and methodologies and explaining them in a simple, yet practical manner. Anyone responsible for conducting investment manager due diligence should have a copy on their bookshelf." —Leon G. Cooperman, Chairman and CEO, Omega Advisors, Inc. "Investment Manager Analysis provides a good overview of the important areas that purchasers of institutional investment management services need to consider. It is a good instructional guide, from which search policies and procedures can be developed, as well as a handy reference guide." —David Spaulding, President, The Spaulding Group, Inc. "This book is the definitive work on the investment manager selection process. It is comprehensive in scope and well organized for both the layman and the professional. It should be required reading for any organization or individual seeking talent to manage their assets." —Scott Johnston, Chairman and Chief Investment Officer, Sterling Johnston Capital Management, LP "Investment Manager Analysis is a much-needed, comprehensive review of the manager selection process. While the industry is riddled with information about selecting individual stocks, comparatively little has been written on the important subject of manager selection for fund sponsors. This is a particularly useful guide for the less experienced practitioner and offers considerable value to the veteran decisionmaker as well." —Dennis J. Trittin, CFA, Portfolio Manager, Russell Investment Group
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1118160894
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 321
Book Description
Praise for Investment Manager Analysis "This is a book that should have been written years ago. It provides a practical, thorough, and completely objective method to analyze and select an investment manager. It takes the mystery (and the consultants) out of the equation. Without question, this book belongs on every Plan Sponsor's desk." —Dave Davenport, Assistant Treasurer, Lord Corporation, author of The Equity Manager Search "An insightful compendium of the issues that challenge those responsible for hiring and firing investment managers. Frank Travers does a good job of taking complicated analytical tools and methodologies and explaining them in a simple, yet practical manner. Anyone responsible for conducting investment manager due diligence should have a copy on their bookshelf." —Leon G. Cooperman, Chairman and CEO, Omega Advisors, Inc. "Investment Manager Analysis provides a good overview of the important areas that purchasers of institutional investment management services need to consider. It is a good instructional guide, from which search policies and procedures can be developed, as well as a handy reference guide." —David Spaulding, President, The Spaulding Group, Inc. "This book is the definitive work on the investment manager selection process. It is comprehensive in scope and well organized for both the layman and the professional. It should be required reading for any organization or individual seeking talent to manage their assets." —Scott Johnston, Chairman and Chief Investment Officer, Sterling Johnston Capital Management, LP "Investment Manager Analysis is a much-needed, comprehensive review of the manager selection process. While the industry is riddled with information about selecting individual stocks, comparatively little has been written on the important subject of manager selection for fund sponsors. This is a particularly useful guide for the less experienced practitioner and offers considerable value to the veteran decisionmaker as well." —Dennis J. Trittin, CFA, Portfolio Manager, Russell Investment Group
Streetwise
Author: Peter L. Bernstein
Publisher: Princeton University Press
ISBN: 1400829402
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 338
Book Description
Streetwise brings together classic articles from the publication that helped revolutionize the way Wall Street does business. During the recession of the early 1970s, investment professionals turned to the theories of a small band of mathematical economists, whose ideas on such topics as portfolio development and risk management eventually led to the reform and maintenance of entire economies. This was the first time economists and practitioners had joined forces to such remarkable effect. Economist and money manager Peter Bernstein sought to encourage this exchange when, in 1974, he founded The Journal of Portfolio Management (JPM). For this present volume, Bernstein and JPM editor Frank Fabozzi have selected forty-one of the most influential articles to appear in the journal over the past twenty-five years, some of them written by Nobel laureates and all aimed at stimulating dialogue between academic economists wishing to understand the real-world problems of finance and investment professionals wanting to bring the most advanced theoretical work to bear on commerce. Financial economics is a youthful but vital field. Streetwise not only reflects its fascinating history but through articles on topics ranging from stock prices and risk management to bonds and real estate also offers relevant insights for today. The contributors are: R. Akhoury, R. D. Arnott, G. L. Bergstrom, G. O. Bierwag, F. Black, R. Bookstaber, K. Cholerton, R. Clarke, D. M. Cutler, C. P. Dialynas, P. O. Dietz, D. H. Edington, M. W. Einhorn, J. Evnine, R. Ferguson, P. M. Firstenberg, H. R. Fogler, F. Garrone, R. Grieves, R. C. Grinold, D. J. Hardy, D. P. Jacob, B. I. Jacobs, R. H. Jeffrey, R. N. Kahn, G. G. Kaufman, M. Kritzman, R. Lanstein, C. M. Latta, M. L. Leibowitz, K. N. Levy, R. Lochoff, R. W. McEnally, K. R. Meyer, E. M. Miller, A. F. Perold, P. Pieraerts, J. M. Poterba, K. Reid, R. R. Reitano, R. Roll, B. Rosenberg, S. A. Ross, M. Rubinstein, A. Rudd, P. A. Samuelson, R. Schweitzer, C. Seix, W. F. Sharpe, B. Solnik, L. H. Summers, A. L. Toevs, J. L. Treynor, A. Weinberger, and R. C. Zisler.
Publisher: Princeton University Press
ISBN: 1400829402
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 338
Book Description
Streetwise brings together classic articles from the publication that helped revolutionize the way Wall Street does business. During the recession of the early 1970s, investment professionals turned to the theories of a small band of mathematical economists, whose ideas on such topics as portfolio development and risk management eventually led to the reform and maintenance of entire economies. This was the first time economists and practitioners had joined forces to such remarkable effect. Economist and money manager Peter Bernstein sought to encourage this exchange when, in 1974, he founded The Journal of Portfolio Management (JPM). For this present volume, Bernstein and JPM editor Frank Fabozzi have selected forty-one of the most influential articles to appear in the journal over the past twenty-five years, some of them written by Nobel laureates and all aimed at stimulating dialogue between academic economists wishing to understand the real-world problems of finance and investment professionals wanting to bring the most advanced theoretical work to bear on commerce. Financial economics is a youthful but vital field. Streetwise not only reflects its fascinating history but through articles on topics ranging from stock prices and risk management to bonds and real estate also offers relevant insights for today. The contributors are: R. Akhoury, R. D. Arnott, G. L. Bergstrom, G. O. Bierwag, F. Black, R. Bookstaber, K. Cholerton, R. Clarke, D. M. Cutler, C. P. Dialynas, P. O. Dietz, D. H. Edington, M. W. Einhorn, J. Evnine, R. Ferguson, P. M. Firstenberg, H. R. Fogler, F. Garrone, R. Grieves, R. C. Grinold, D. J. Hardy, D. P. Jacob, B. I. Jacobs, R. H. Jeffrey, R. N. Kahn, G. G. Kaufman, M. Kritzman, R. Lanstein, C. M. Latta, M. L. Leibowitz, K. N. Levy, R. Lochoff, R. W. McEnally, K. R. Meyer, E. M. Miller, A. F. Perold, P. Pieraerts, J. M. Poterba, K. Reid, R. R. Reitano, R. Roll, B. Rosenberg, S. A. Ross, M. Rubinstein, A. Rudd, P. A. Samuelson, R. Schweitzer, C. Seix, W. F. Sharpe, B. Solnik, L. H. Summers, A. L. Toevs, J. L. Treynor, A. Weinberger, and R. C. Zisler.
Finance
Author: Frank J. Fabozzi
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 0470486155
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 832
Book Description
FINANCE Financial managers and investment professionals need a solid foundation in finance principles and applications in order to make the best decisions in today's ever-changing financial world. Written by the experienced author team of Frank Fabozzi and Pamela Peterson Drake, Finance examines the essential elements of this discipline and makes them understandable to a wide array of individuals, from seasoned professionals looking to fine-tune their financial skills to newcomers seeking genuine guidance through the dynamic world of finance. Divided into four comprehensive parts, this reliable resource opens with an informative introduction to the basic tools of investing and financing decision-making financial mathematics and financial analysis (Part I). From here, you'll become familiar with the fundamentals of capital market theory, including financial markets, financial intermediaries, and regulators of financial activities (Part II). You'll also gain a better understanding of interest rates, bond and stock valuation, asset pricing theory, and derivative instruments in this section. Part III moves on to detail decision-making within a business enterprise. Topics touched upon here include capital budgeting that is, whether or not to invest in specific long-lived projects and capital structure. Management of current assets and risk management are also addressed. By covering the basics of investment decision-making, Part IV skillfully wraps up this accessible overview of finance. Beginning with the determination of an investment objective, this part proceeds to demonstrate portfolio theory and performance evaluation, and also takes the time to outline techniques for managing equity and bond portfolios as well as discuss the best ways to use derivatives in the portfolio management process. Filled with in-depth insights and practical advice, Finance puts this field in perspective. And while a lot of ground is covered in this book, this information will help you appreciate and understand the complex financial issues that today's companies and investors constantly face.
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 0470486155
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 832
Book Description
FINANCE Financial managers and investment professionals need a solid foundation in finance principles and applications in order to make the best decisions in today's ever-changing financial world. Written by the experienced author team of Frank Fabozzi and Pamela Peterson Drake, Finance examines the essential elements of this discipline and makes them understandable to a wide array of individuals, from seasoned professionals looking to fine-tune their financial skills to newcomers seeking genuine guidance through the dynamic world of finance. Divided into four comprehensive parts, this reliable resource opens with an informative introduction to the basic tools of investing and financing decision-making financial mathematics and financial analysis (Part I). From here, you'll become familiar with the fundamentals of capital market theory, including financial markets, financial intermediaries, and regulators of financial activities (Part II). You'll also gain a better understanding of interest rates, bond and stock valuation, asset pricing theory, and derivative instruments in this section. Part III moves on to detail decision-making within a business enterprise. Topics touched upon here include capital budgeting that is, whether or not to invest in specific long-lived projects and capital structure. Management of current assets and risk management are also addressed. By covering the basics of investment decision-making, Part IV skillfully wraps up this accessible overview of finance. Beginning with the determination of an investment objective, this part proceeds to demonstrate portfolio theory and performance evaluation, and also takes the time to outline techniques for managing equity and bond portfolios as well as discuss the best ways to use derivatives in the portfolio management process. Filled with in-depth insights and practical advice, Finance puts this field in perspective. And while a lot of ground is covered in this book, this information will help you appreciate and understand the complex financial issues that today's companies and investors constantly face.
50 States of Gray
Author: Arun Muralidhar
Publisher:
ISBN: 9780692103166
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 0
Book Description
Another retirement crisis is looming as one-third of private-sector, typically poor and unsophisticated workers, probably have little to no pension security. The fifty states have decided to enact reforms, but they are unwilling to assume any liability. Effective reform should ensure a target, guaranteed, inflation/standard-of-living-indexed retirement income through death. The book proposes a four-step reform process that articulates roles, responsibilities, and sequencing of steps to effectively address the looming retirement crisis. Current reform models potentially expose participants to costly, risky, error-prone, and illiquid alternatives, which could transfer wealth from poor citizens to rich asset managers and from short-lived poor and minority citizens to rich and majority populations. Retirement planning presents a wealth of complex challenges associated with saving, investing, and decumulation. To address these challenges, Muralidhar provides an innovative Flex MMM reform model that reflects the goals of numerous stakeholders, including, states, employers, employees, asset managers, and regulators, by showing steps the federal and state governments could take to alleviate the guesswork and insecurity involved in the retirement saving process. Muralidhar also demonstrates that the lynchpin for retirement security globally is an innovative new retirement bond (called SeLFIES ) he has jointly developed with Robert C. Merton that governments could easily issue to achieve multiple goals.
Publisher:
ISBN: 9780692103166
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 0
Book Description
Another retirement crisis is looming as one-third of private-sector, typically poor and unsophisticated workers, probably have little to no pension security. The fifty states have decided to enact reforms, but they are unwilling to assume any liability. Effective reform should ensure a target, guaranteed, inflation/standard-of-living-indexed retirement income through death. The book proposes a four-step reform process that articulates roles, responsibilities, and sequencing of steps to effectively address the looming retirement crisis. Current reform models potentially expose participants to costly, risky, error-prone, and illiquid alternatives, which could transfer wealth from poor citizens to rich asset managers and from short-lived poor and minority citizens to rich and majority populations. Retirement planning presents a wealth of complex challenges associated with saving, investing, and decumulation. To address these challenges, Muralidhar provides an innovative Flex MMM reform model that reflects the goals of numerous stakeholders, including, states, employers, employees, asset managers, and regulators, by showing steps the federal and state governments could take to alleviate the guesswork and insecurity involved in the retirement saving process. Muralidhar also demonstrates that the lynchpin for retirement security globally is an innovative new retirement bond (called SeLFIES ) he has jointly developed with Robert C. Merton that governments could easily issue to achieve multiple goals.
The Efficient Market Theory and Evidence
Author: Andrew Ang
Publisher: Now Publishers Inc
ISBN: 1601984685
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 99
Book Description
The Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) asserts that, at all times, the price of a security reflects all available information about its fundamental value. The implication of the EMH for investors is that, to the extent that speculative trading is costly, speculation must be a loser's game. Hence, under the EMH, a passive strategy is bound eventually to beat a strategy that uses active management, where active management is characterized as trading that seeks to exploit mispriced assets relative to a risk-adjusted benchmark. The EMH has been refined over the past several decades to reflect the realism of the marketplace, including costly information, transactions costs, financing, agency costs, and other real-world frictions. The most recent expressions of the EMH thus allow a role for arbitrageurs in the market who may profit from their comparative advantages. These advantages may include specialized knowledge, lower trading costs, low management fees or agency costs, and a financing structure that allows the arbitrageur to undertake trades with long verification periods. The actions of these arbitrageurs cause liquid securities markets to be generally fairly efficient with respect to information, despite some notable anomalies.
Publisher: Now Publishers Inc
ISBN: 1601984685
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 99
Book Description
The Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) asserts that, at all times, the price of a security reflects all available information about its fundamental value. The implication of the EMH for investors is that, to the extent that speculative trading is costly, speculation must be a loser's game. Hence, under the EMH, a passive strategy is bound eventually to beat a strategy that uses active management, where active management is characterized as trading that seeks to exploit mispriced assets relative to a risk-adjusted benchmark. The EMH has been refined over the past several decades to reflect the realism of the marketplace, including costly information, transactions costs, financing, agency costs, and other real-world frictions. The most recent expressions of the EMH thus allow a role for arbitrageurs in the market who may profit from their comparative advantages. These advantages may include specialized knowledge, lower trading costs, low management fees or agency costs, and a financing structure that allows the arbitrageur to undertake trades with long verification periods. The actions of these arbitrageurs cause liquid securities markets to be generally fairly efficient with respect to information, despite some notable anomalies.