Author: Kamala G Pillai
Publisher: JP Medical Ltd
ISBN: 9351528545
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 463
Book Description
Oral & Maxillofacial Radiology is a practical, illustrated guide to the basic principles and interpretation of imaging of the mouth and jaw, written by Kamala G Pillai from the School of Dentistry at the University of Louisville, in the United States. The book is comprised of 32 chapters, covering a broad range of topics within radiology. The first nine chapters of the book focus on the basics of radiology, including the nature and characteristics of radiation, the production and properties of X-rays, and radiation biology. The middle section of the book presents different types of radiography, followed by instruction on procedures of radiographic interpretation. Subsequent chapters focus on the identification of specific conditions using radiography. The final chapter of Oral & Maxillofacial Radiology provides important concepts at a glance, with definitions and a glossary. Enhanced by over 540 images and illustrations, this book is an ideal resource for undergraduates in dentistry. Key Points Practical illustrated guide to imaging of the mouth and jaw Written by Kamala G Pillai based at the University of Louisville School of Dentistry, USA Presents a broad range of oral and maxillofacial conditions as identified by radiography Over 540 illustrations and images
Oral & Maxillofacial Radiology
Author: Kamala G Pillai
Publisher: JP Medical Ltd
ISBN: 9351528545
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 463
Book Description
Oral & Maxillofacial Radiology is a practical, illustrated guide to the basic principles and interpretation of imaging of the mouth and jaw, written by Kamala G Pillai from the School of Dentistry at the University of Louisville, in the United States. The book is comprised of 32 chapters, covering a broad range of topics within radiology. The first nine chapters of the book focus on the basics of radiology, including the nature and characteristics of radiation, the production and properties of X-rays, and radiation biology. The middle section of the book presents different types of radiography, followed by instruction on procedures of radiographic interpretation. Subsequent chapters focus on the identification of specific conditions using radiography. The final chapter of Oral & Maxillofacial Radiology provides important concepts at a glance, with definitions and a glossary. Enhanced by over 540 images and illustrations, this book is an ideal resource for undergraduates in dentistry. Key Points Practical illustrated guide to imaging of the mouth and jaw Written by Kamala G Pillai based at the University of Louisville School of Dentistry, USA Presents a broad range of oral and maxillofacial conditions as identified by radiography Over 540 illustrations and images
Publisher: JP Medical Ltd
ISBN: 9351528545
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 463
Book Description
Oral & Maxillofacial Radiology is a practical, illustrated guide to the basic principles and interpretation of imaging of the mouth and jaw, written by Kamala G Pillai from the School of Dentistry at the University of Louisville, in the United States. The book is comprised of 32 chapters, covering a broad range of topics within radiology. The first nine chapters of the book focus on the basics of radiology, including the nature and characteristics of radiation, the production and properties of X-rays, and radiation biology. The middle section of the book presents different types of radiography, followed by instruction on procedures of radiographic interpretation. Subsequent chapters focus on the identification of specific conditions using radiography. The final chapter of Oral & Maxillofacial Radiology provides important concepts at a glance, with definitions and a glossary. Enhanced by over 540 images and illustrations, this book is an ideal resource for undergraduates in dentistry. Key Points Practical illustrated guide to imaging of the mouth and jaw Written by Kamala G Pillai based at the University of Louisville School of Dentistry, USA Presents a broad range of oral and maxillofacial conditions as identified by radiography Over 540 illustrations and images
Fundamentals of Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology
Author: J. Sean Hubar
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 111912221X
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 264
Book Description
Fundamentals of Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology provides a concise overview of the principles of dental radiology, emphasizing their application to clinical practice. Distills foundational knowledge on oral radiology in an accessible guide Uses a succinct, easy-to-follow approach Focuses on practical applications for radiology information and techniques Presents summaries of the most common osseous pathologic lesions and dental anomalies Includes companion website with figures from the book in PowerPoint and x-ray puzzles
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 111912221X
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 264
Book Description
Fundamentals of Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology provides a concise overview of the principles of dental radiology, emphasizing their application to clinical practice. Distills foundational knowledge on oral radiology in an accessible guide Uses a succinct, easy-to-follow approach Focuses on practical applications for radiology information and techniques Presents summaries of the most common osseous pathologic lesions and dental anomalies Includes companion website with figures from the book in PowerPoint and x-ray puzzles
White and Pharoah's Oral Radiology
Author: Sanjay Mallya
Publisher: Elsevier Health Sciences
ISBN: 0323543847
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 706
Book Description
Written specifically for dentists, White and Pharoah's Oral Radiology: Principles and Interpretation 8th Edition incorporates over 1,500 high-quality radiographic images and illustrations to demonstrate core concepts and essential principles and techniques of oral and maxillofacial radiology. The new edition of this bestselling book delivers with state-of-the-art information on oral radiology principles and techniques, and image interpretation. Dental student will gain a solid foundation in radiation physics, radiation biology, and radiation safety and protection before introducing including specialized techniques such as MRI and CT. As well, students will learn how to recognize the key radiographic features of pathologic conditions and interpret radiographs accurately. The 8th edition also includes new chapters on Radiologic Anatomy, Beyond 3D Imaging, and Diseases Affecting the Structure of Bone. A practical guide to using today's technology, this unique text helps your students provide state-of-the-art care! - Over 1,500 high quality dental radiographs, full color photos, and illustrations clearly demonstrate core concepts and reinforce the essential principles and techniques of oral and maxillofacial radiology. - Updated Extensive coverage of all aspects of oral and maxillofacial radiology includes the entire predoctoral curriculum. - A wide array of radiographic images including advanced imaging such as MRI and CT. - An easy-to-follow format simplifies the key radiographic features of each pathologic condition, including location, periphery, shape, internal structure, and effects on surrounding structures — placed in context with clinical features, differential diagnosis, and management. - Expert contributors include many authors with worldwide reputations. - Case studies apply imaging concepts to real-world scenarios. - NEW! New editors Sanjay Mallya and Ernest Lam along with new contributors bring a fresh perspective on oral radiology. - NEW! Chapter! Beyond 3D Imaging introduces applications of 3D imaging such as stereolithic models. - NEW! Chapter Radiological Anatomy includes all radiological anatomy content allowing you to better visualize and understand normal appearances of structures on conventional and contemporary imaging, side-by-side. - NEW! Coverage of Diseases Affecting the Structure of Bone consolidated into one chapter to simplify foundational basic science information and its applications to radiologic interpretation.
Publisher: Elsevier Health Sciences
ISBN: 0323543847
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 706
Book Description
Written specifically for dentists, White and Pharoah's Oral Radiology: Principles and Interpretation 8th Edition incorporates over 1,500 high-quality radiographic images and illustrations to demonstrate core concepts and essential principles and techniques of oral and maxillofacial radiology. The new edition of this bestselling book delivers with state-of-the-art information on oral radiology principles and techniques, and image interpretation. Dental student will gain a solid foundation in radiation physics, radiation biology, and radiation safety and protection before introducing including specialized techniques such as MRI and CT. As well, students will learn how to recognize the key radiographic features of pathologic conditions and interpret radiographs accurately. The 8th edition also includes new chapters on Radiologic Anatomy, Beyond 3D Imaging, and Diseases Affecting the Structure of Bone. A practical guide to using today's technology, this unique text helps your students provide state-of-the-art care! - Over 1,500 high quality dental radiographs, full color photos, and illustrations clearly demonstrate core concepts and reinforce the essential principles and techniques of oral and maxillofacial radiology. - Updated Extensive coverage of all aspects of oral and maxillofacial radiology includes the entire predoctoral curriculum. - A wide array of radiographic images including advanced imaging such as MRI and CT. - An easy-to-follow format simplifies the key radiographic features of each pathologic condition, including location, periphery, shape, internal structure, and effects on surrounding structures — placed in context with clinical features, differential diagnosis, and management. - Expert contributors include many authors with worldwide reputations. - Case studies apply imaging concepts to real-world scenarios. - NEW! New editors Sanjay Mallya and Ernest Lam along with new contributors bring a fresh perspective on oral radiology. - NEW! Chapter! Beyond 3D Imaging introduces applications of 3D imaging such as stereolithic models. - NEW! Chapter Radiological Anatomy includes all radiological anatomy content allowing you to better visualize and understand normal appearances of structures on conventional and contemporary imaging, side-by-side. - NEW! Coverage of Diseases Affecting the Structure of Bone consolidated into one chapter to simplify foundational basic science information and its applications to radiologic interpretation.
Oral Radiology
Author: Stuart C. White
Publisher: Mosby
ISBN: 9780323049832
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 641
Book Description
With more than 1,000 high-quality radiographs and illustrations, Oral Radiology: Principles and Interpretation, 7th Edition visually demonstrates the basic principles of oral and maxillofacial radiology along with their clinical application. First, you'll gain a solid foundation in radiation physics, radiation biology, and radiation safety and protection. Then you'll learn intraoral and extraoral imaging techniques, including specialized techniques such as MRI and CT. The second half of the book focuses on how to recognize the radiographic features of pathologic conditions and interpret radiographs accurately. This edition also includes new chapters on forensics and cone-beam imaging. Written by oral radiology experts Stuart White and Michael Pharoah, this bestselling book helps you provide state-of-the-art care! An easy-to-follow format simplifies the key radiographic features of each pathologic condition, including location, periphery, shape, internal structure, and effects on surrounding structures - placed in context with clinical features, differential diagnosis, and management. UPDATED information addresses the etiology and diagnosis of diseases and pathologic conditions in the orofacial region. Updated coverage of all aspects of oral radiology includes the entire predoctoral curriculum. A wide array of radiographs including advanced imaging such as MRI and CT. Hundreds of drawings are updated and rendered in full color. Case studies apply imaging concepts to real-world scenarios. Expert contributors include many authors with worldwide reputations. Chapter bibliographies and suggested readings make it easier to conduct further research. NEW chapter on cone-beam imaging keeps you current with emerging field requirements. NEW coverage of cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) includes more of the normal anatomy of cross-sectional images of the maxilla and mandible along with variations of normal anatomy. NEW! An eBook version makes the content interactive and portable, and shows radiographs in high resolution.
Publisher: Mosby
ISBN: 9780323049832
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 641
Book Description
With more than 1,000 high-quality radiographs and illustrations, Oral Radiology: Principles and Interpretation, 7th Edition visually demonstrates the basic principles of oral and maxillofacial radiology along with their clinical application. First, you'll gain a solid foundation in radiation physics, radiation biology, and radiation safety and protection. Then you'll learn intraoral and extraoral imaging techniques, including specialized techniques such as MRI and CT. The second half of the book focuses on how to recognize the radiographic features of pathologic conditions and interpret radiographs accurately. This edition also includes new chapters on forensics and cone-beam imaging. Written by oral radiology experts Stuart White and Michael Pharoah, this bestselling book helps you provide state-of-the-art care! An easy-to-follow format simplifies the key radiographic features of each pathologic condition, including location, periphery, shape, internal structure, and effects on surrounding structures - placed in context with clinical features, differential diagnosis, and management. UPDATED information addresses the etiology and diagnosis of diseases and pathologic conditions in the orofacial region. Updated coverage of all aspects of oral radiology includes the entire predoctoral curriculum. A wide array of radiographs including advanced imaging such as MRI and CT. Hundreds of drawings are updated and rendered in full color. Case studies apply imaging concepts to real-world scenarios. Expert contributors include many authors with worldwide reputations. Chapter bibliographies and suggested readings make it easier to conduct further research. NEW chapter on cone-beam imaging keeps you current with emerging field requirements. NEW coverage of cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) includes more of the normal anatomy of cross-sectional images of the maxilla and mandible along with variations of normal anatomy. NEW! An eBook version makes the content interactive and portable, and shows radiographs in high resolution.
Oral Radiology
Author: Stuart C. White
Publisher: Elsevier España
ISBN: 9788481745689
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 686
Book Description
Resource added for the Dental Hygienist program 105081 and Dental Assistant program 315081.
Publisher: Elsevier España
ISBN: 9788481745689
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 686
Book Description
Resource added for the Dental Hygienist program 105081 and Dental Assistant program 315081.
Essentials of Oral & Maxillofacial Radiology
Author: Freny R Karjodkar
Publisher: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers
ISBN: 9352705696
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 780
Book Description
Section 1: Introduction 1. History of Dental Radiography Section 2: Physics of Ionizing Radiation 2. Radiation Physics 3. Properties of X-rays 4. Production of X-rays Section 3: Radiation and Health Physics 5. Radiation Biology 6. Protection from Radiation Section 4: Imaging Principles 7. Ideal Radiographs 8. Radiographic Prescription 9. Faulty Radiographs 10. X-ray Films and Accessories 11. Processing Section 5: Imaging Techniques 12. Intraoral Radiographic Techniques 13. Extraoral Radiographs and Other Specialized Imaging Techniques 14. Panoramic Radiography 15. Cone-beam Computed Tomography 16. Digital Radiography Section 6: Radiographic Diagnosis of Pathology Affecting the Jaws 17. Normal Anatomy on Intraoral and Extraoral Radiographs and Basics in Interpreting Radiographs 18. Dental Caries 19. Periodontal Diseases 20. Dental Anomalies and Developmental Disturbances of the Jaws 21. Infections and Inflammatory Lesions and Systemic Diseases Affecting the Jaws 22. Cysts of Jaws 23. Benign Tumors of the Jaws 24. Malignant Diseases of the Jaws 25. Diseases of Bone Manifested in the Jaws 26. Temporomandibular Joint Disorders 27. Disorders of the Maxillary Sinus 28. Soft Tissue Calcifications and Ossifications 29. Trauma to Teeth and Facial Structures 30. Salivary Gland Disorders Section 7: Role of Maxillofacial Radiology in Specialized Dental Fields 31. Implant Radiology 32. Role of Dental Radiology in Forensic Odontology Case Reports Index
Publisher: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers
ISBN: 9352705696
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 780
Book Description
Section 1: Introduction 1. History of Dental Radiography Section 2: Physics of Ionizing Radiation 2. Radiation Physics 3. Properties of X-rays 4. Production of X-rays Section 3: Radiation and Health Physics 5. Radiation Biology 6. Protection from Radiation Section 4: Imaging Principles 7. Ideal Radiographs 8. Radiographic Prescription 9. Faulty Radiographs 10. X-ray Films and Accessories 11. Processing Section 5: Imaging Techniques 12. Intraoral Radiographic Techniques 13. Extraoral Radiographs and Other Specialized Imaging Techniques 14. Panoramic Radiography 15. Cone-beam Computed Tomography 16. Digital Radiography Section 6: Radiographic Diagnosis of Pathology Affecting the Jaws 17. Normal Anatomy on Intraoral and Extraoral Radiographs and Basics in Interpreting Radiographs 18. Dental Caries 19. Periodontal Diseases 20. Dental Anomalies and Developmental Disturbances of the Jaws 21. Infections and Inflammatory Lesions and Systemic Diseases Affecting the Jaws 22. Cysts of Jaws 23. Benign Tumors of the Jaws 24. Malignant Diseases of the Jaws 25. Diseases of Bone Manifested in the Jaws 26. Temporomandibular Joint Disorders 27. Disorders of the Maxillary Sinus 28. Soft Tissue Calcifications and Ossifications 29. Trauma to Teeth and Facial Structures 30. Salivary Gland Disorders Section 7: Role of Maxillofacial Radiology in Specialized Dental Fields 31. Implant Radiology 32. Role of Dental Radiology in Forensic Odontology Case Reports Index
Principles of Dental Imaging
Author: Olaf E. Langland
Publisher: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
ISBN: 9780781729659
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 486
Book Description
This new edition successfully combines elements of radiographic technique with interpretation information for readers. Five sections cover the concepts of radiologic imaging, radiographic techniques and procedures, special imaging techniques, radiation health, and assessment and interpretation. Based on the Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology guidelines published by the American Association of Dental Schools, this unique book features numerous high-quality photographs, radiographs, and line drawings. New information on digital radiography, radiation health, periodontal disease, and image assessment is included, as well as chapter review questions, case-based questions, and workshop and laboratory exercises. To help readers prepare for certification, sample multiple-choice and case-based questions for the National and State Board Certification Examinations are also included.
Publisher: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
ISBN: 9780781729659
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 486
Book Description
This new edition successfully combines elements of radiographic technique with interpretation information for readers. Five sections cover the concepts of radiologic imaging, radiographic techniques and procedures, special imaging techniques, radiation health, and assessment and interpretation. Based on the Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology guidelines published by the American Association of Dental Schools, this unique book features numerous high-quality photographs, radiographs, and line drawings. New information on digital radiography, radiation health, periodontal disease, and image assessment is included, as well as chapter review questions, case-based questions, and workshop and laboratory exercises. To help readers prepare for certification, sample multiple-choice and case-based questions for the National and State Board Certification Examinations are also included.
Maxillofacial Cone Beam Computed Tomography
Author: William C. Scarfe
Publisher: Springer
ISBN: 3319620614
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 1241
Book Description
The book provides a comprehensive description of the fundamental operational principles, technical details of acquiring and specific clinical applications of dental and maxillofacial cone beam computed tomography (CBCT). It covers all clinical considerations necessary for optimal performance in a dental setting. In addition overall and region specific correlative imaging anatomy of the maxillofacial region is described in detail with emphasis on relevant disease. Finally imaging interpretation of CBCT images is presented related to specific clinical applications. This book is the definitive resource for all who refer, perform, interpret or use dental and maxillofacial CBCT including dental clinicians and specialists, radiographers, ENT physicians, head and neck, and oral and maxillofacial radiologists.
Publisher: Springer
ISBN: 3319620614
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 1241
Book Description
The book provides a comprehensive description of the fundamental operational principles, technical details of acquiring and specific clinical applications of dental and maxillofacial cone beam computed tomography (CBCT). It covers all clinical considerations necessary for optimal performance in a dental setting. In addition overall and region specific correlative imaging anatomy of the maxillofacial region is described in detail with emphasis on relevant disease. Finally imaging interpretation of CBCT images is presented related to specific clinical applications. This book is the definitive resource for all who refer, perform, interpret or use dental and maxillofacial CBCT including dental clinicians and specialists, radiographers, ENT physicians, head and neck, and oral and maxillofacial radiologists.
White and Pharoah's Oral Radiology E-book
Author: Sanjay Mallya
Publisher: Elsevier Health Sciences
ISBN: 8131256782
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 708
Book Description
Over 1,500 high quality dental radiographs, full color photos, and illustrations clearly demonstrate core concepts and reinforce the essential principles and techniques of oral and maxillofacial radiology. updated Extensive coverage of all aspects of oral radiology for the entire predoctoral curriculum. NEW! Chapter Radiological Anatomy includes all radiological anatomy content allowing students to better visualize and understand normal appearances of structures on conventional and contemporary imaging, side-by-side. NEW! Chapter! Beyond 3D Imaging: introduces applications of 3D imaging such as stereolithic models. UPDATED Comprehensive coverage of diseases affecting the teeth and jaws, relating their pathogenesis to their key imaging features and image interpretation. NEW! New editors Drs. Sanjay Mallya and Ernest Lam along with new contributors bring a fresh perspective on oral radiology. A wide array of radiographs including advanced imaging such as MRI and CT. An easy-to-follow format simplifies the key radiographic features of each pathologic condition, including location, periphery, shape, internal structure, and effects on surrounding structures are placed in context with clinical features, differential interpretation, and management. Expert contributors include many authors with worldwide reputations. Case studies apply imaging concepts to real-world scenarios.
Publisher: Elsevier Health Sciences
ISBN: 8131256782
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 708
Book Description
Over 1,500 high quality dental radiographs, full color photos, and illustrations clearly demonstrate core concepts and reinforce the essential principles and techniques of oral and maxillofacial radiology. updated Extensive coverage of all aspects of oral radiology for the entire predoctoral curriculum. NEW! Chapter Radiological Anatomy includes all radiological anatomy content allowing students to better visualize and understand normal appearances of structures on conventional and contemporary imaging, side-by-side. NEW! Chapter! Beyond 3D Imaging: introduces applications of 3D imaging such as stereolithic models. UPDATED Comprehensive coverage of diseases affecting the teeth and jaws, relating their pathogenesis to their key imaging features and image interpretation. NEW! New editors Drs. Sanjay Mallya and Ernest Lam along with new contributors bring a fresh perspective on oral radiology. A wide array of radiographs including advanced imaging such as MRI and CT. An easy-to-follow format simplifies the key radiographic features of each pathologic condition, including location, periphery, shape, internal structure, and effects on surrounding structures are placed in context with clinical features, differential interpretation, and management. Expert contributors include many authors with worldwide reputations. Case studies apply imaging concepts to real-world scenarios.
Dental Radiography - E-Book
Author: Joen Iannucci
Publisher: Elsevier Health Sciences
ISBN: 0323291295
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 484
Book Description
Providing essential coverage of dental radiography principles and complete technical instruction, Dental Radiography: Principles and Techniques, 4th Edition, is your key to the safe, effective use of radiation in the dental office. The first ever full-color dental radiography resource, this combination of a textbook and a training manual guides you step-by-step through common procedures, with accompanying illustrations, case studies, and interactive exercises to help you apply what you've learned to practice. A concise, straightforward writing style makes complex concepts more accessible and helps you easily identify the most important information. Step-by-step procedures combine clear instructions with anatomical drawings, positioning photos, and corresponding radiographs to help you confidently and accurately perform specific techniques, thus minimizing radiation exposure to the patient. Helpful Hints detail common problems you may encounter in practice and provide a checklist to guide you through the do's and don'ts of imaging procedures. Quiz Questions at the end of each chapter assess your understanding of important content. Key terms, learning objectives, and chapter summaries highlight essential information to help you study more efficiently. Interactive exercises, terminology games, and case studies modeled on the National Board Dental Hygiene Examination (NBDHE) on Evolve reinforce your understanding and help you prepare for examinations. New chapter on cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) familiarizes you with emerging practices in dental radiography. Updated chapter discussions and new radiographs keep you up to date on the latest information in digital imaging. UNIQUE! Full-color design and new illustrations and photographs clarify difficult concepts and help you master proper positioning techniques. UNIQUE! A comprehensive appendix provides quick, easy access to all mathematical formulas used in dental radiography.
Publisher: Elsevier Health Sciences
ISBN: 0323291295
Category : Medical
Languages : en
Pages : 484
Book Description
Providing essential coverage of dental radiography principles and complete technical instruction, Dental Radiography: Principles and Techniques, 4th Edition, is your key to the safe, effective use of radiation in the dental office. The first ever full-color dental radiography resource, this combination of a textbook and a training manual guides you step-by-step through common procedures, with accompanying illustrations, case studies, and interactive exercises to help you apply what you've learned to practice. A concise, straightforward writing style makes complex concepts more accessible and helps you easily identify the most important information. Step-by-step procedures combine clear instructions with anatomical drawings, positioning photos, and corresponding radiographs to help you confidently and accurately perform specific techniques, thus minimizing radiation exposure to the patient. Helpful Hints detail common problems you may encounter in practice and provide a checklist to guide you through the do's and don'ts of imaging procedures. Quiz Questions at the end of each chapter assess your understanding of important content. Key terms, learning objectives, and chapter summaries highlight essential information to help you study more efficiently. Interactive exercises, terminology games, and case studies modeled on the National Board Dental Hygiene Examination (NBDHE) on Evolve reinforce your understanding and help you prepare for examinations. New chapter on cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) familiarizes you with emerging practices in dental radiography. Updated chapter discussions and new radiographs keep you up to date on the latest information in digital imaging. UNIQUE! Full-color design and new illustrations and photographs clarify difficult concepts and help you master proper positioning techniques. UNIQUE! A comprehensive appendix provides quick, easy access to all mathematical formulas used in dental radiography.